^  1 0.3  > /OS 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS— BdLLETIN  NO.  108. 

A.   C.  TRUE,    Dire.  lor. 


IRRIGATION  PRACT 


AMONG 


FRUIT  GROWERS  ON  THE  PACI 


BY 


E.  J.  WICKSON,  M.  A., 

Professor  of  Agricultural  Practice,  University  of  California,  and  Horticulturist 

of  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


JJNIV.  OF  FLLIb. 


U.S.  DEPOSITORY 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING     OFFICE. 

L90  2. 


LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS  ON 

IRRIGATION.* 

9 

Bul.    36.  Note*  on  Irrigation  in  Connecticut  and  New  Jersey.     By  C.  S.  Phelps  and 

E.  B.  Voorhees.     Pp.  64.     Price,  10  cents. 
Bul.    58.  Water  Rights  on  the  Missouri  River  and  its  Tributaries.     By  Ehvood  Mead. 

Pp.  80.     Price,  10  cents. 
Bul.     60.  Abstract  of  Laws  for  Acquiring  Titles  to  Water  from  the  Missouri  River  and 

its  Tributaries,  with  the  Legal  Forms  in  Use.     Compiled  by  El  wood  Mead. 

Pp.  77.     Price,  10  cents. 
Bul.     70.  Water-Right  Problems  of  Bear  River.     By  Clarence  T.  Johnston  and  Joseph 

A.  Breckons.     Pp.  40.     Price,  15  cents. 
Bul.    73.  Irrigation  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  States.     By  J.  C.  Ulrich.     Pp.64.     Price, 

10  cents. 

Bul.    81.  The  Use  of  Water  in  Irrigation  in  Wyoming.     By  B.  C.  Buffuni.     Pp.  56. 

Price,  10  cents. 
Bul.     86.  The  Lse  of  Water  in  Irrigation.     Report  of  investigations  made  in  1899, 

under  the  supervision  of  El  wood  Mead,  expert  in  charge,  and  C.  T.  John- 
ston, assistant.     Pp.  253.     Price,  30  cents. 
Bul.    87.  Irrigation  in  Xew  Jersey.      By  Edward  B.  Voorhees.     Pp.  40.      Price,  5 

cents. 
Bul.    90.  Irrigation  in  Hawaii.     By  Walter  Maxwell.     Pp.  48.     Price,  10  cents. 
Bul.    92.  The  Reservoir  System  of  the  Cache  la  Poudre  Valley.     By  E.  S.  Xettleton. 

Pp.  48.     Price,  15  cents. 
Bul.    96.  Irrigation  Laws  of  the  Northwest  Territories  of  Canada  and  Wyoming,  with 

Discussions  by  J.    S.    Dennis,    Fred  Bond,  and  J.  M.  Wilson.     Pp.  90. 

Price,  >  10  cents. 
Bul.  100.  Report   of  Irrigation   Investigations  in  California  under  the  direction  of 

Elwood  Mead,  assisted  by  William  E.  Smythe,  Marsden  Manson,  J.  M. 

Wilson,  Charles  D.  Marx,  Frank  Soule,  C.  E.  Grunsky,  Edward  M.  Boggs, 

and  James  D.  Schuyler.     Pp.  411.     Price,  cloth,  $1.25;  paper,  90  cents. 
Bul.  104.  Report  of  Irrigation  Investigations  for  1900.      Under  the  supervision  of 

Elwood  Mead,  expert  in  charge  of  Irrigation  Investigations.     Pp.  334. 

Price,  50  cents. 
Bul.  105.  Irrigation  in  the  United  States.     Testimony  of  Elwood  Mead,  irrigation 

expert  in  charge,  before  the  United  States  Industrial  Commission  June 

11  and  12,  1901.     Pp.  47.     Price,  15  cents. 

farmers'   bulletins. 

Bul.    46.   Irrigation  in  Humid  Climates.     By  F.  II.  King.     Pp.  27. 
Bul.  116.  Irrigation  in  Fruit  Growing.     By  E.  J.  Wickson.     Pp.  48. 
Bul.  138.  Irrigation  in  Field  and  Garden.     By  E.  J.  Wickson.     Pp.  40. 

aFor  those  publications  to  which  a  price  is  affixed  application  should  be  made  to 
the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Union  Building,  Washington,  D.  C,  the  officer 
designated  by  law  to  sell  Government  publications, 


460 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS— BULLETIN  NO.  108. 

A.  C.  TRUE,   Director. 


IRRIGATION  PRACTICE 


AMONG 


FRUIT  GROWERS  ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. 


BY 


E.  J.  WIOKSON,  M.  A., 

Professor  of  Agricultural  Practice,  University  of  California,  and  Horticulturist 
of  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 
1902. 


OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 


A.  C.  True,  Ph.  D.— Director. 

E.  W.  Allen,  Ph.  D.—  Assistant  Director. 

IRRIGATION   INVESTIGATIONS. 

Elwood  Mead — Irrigation  Expert  in  Charge. 

Clarence  T.  Johnston — Expert  Assistant  in  Charge  of  Cheyenne  Office, 

J.  M.  Wilson — Agent  and  Expert  in  Charge  of  California  Office. 

R.  P.  Teele— Editorial  Assistant. 

Clarence  E.  Tait — Assistant  in  Charge  of  Maps  and  Illustrations. 

A.  P.  Stover — Assistant. 

J.  D.  Stannard— Assistant. 

Frank  Adams—  Agent  and  Expert. 

Frank  Bond — Agent  and  Expert. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 

Washington,  D.  C. ,  November  15, 1901. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  on  Irrigation 
practice  among  fruit  growers  on  the  Pacific  coast,  b}r  E.  J.  Wickson, 
M.  A.,  and  to  recommend  its  publication  as  a  bulletin  of  this  Office. 
This  report  has  been  prepared  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Elwood 
Mead,  expert  in  charge  of  the  irrigation  investigations  of  this  Office. 
It  presents  the  results  of  a  special  investigation  into  the  conditions, 
extent,  and  methods  of  irrigation  as  practiced  among  fruit  growers  on 
the  Pacific  coast.  The  data  on  which  it  is  based  were  gathered  during 
a  period  extending  over  several  years  and  involved  the  cooperation 
of  many  fruit  growers  in  the  States  of  Idaho,  Washington,  Oregon, 
California,  and  Nevada,  and  the  Territory  of  Arizona.  It  is  believed 
that  the  information  contained  in  the  report  will  suggest  further 
thought  and  inquiiy  on  the  part  of  those  interested  in  fruit  growing 
throughout  the  West. 

Respectfully,  A.  C.  True, 

Director. 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


CONTEXTS. 


Page. 

Introduction 7 

Region  included  in  the  investigation 8 

The  nonirrigated  area 8 

The  partially  or  occasionally  irrigated  area 9 

The  regularly  irrigated  area 10 

Relation  of  physical  features  to  irrigation  practice 10 

Summary  showing  topography,  soil,  rainfall,  and  irrigation  practice  in 

Pacific  coast  regions 12 

Relation  of  elevation  and  exposure  to  irrigation 16 

Relation  of  soil  to  irrigation 16 

Relation  of  rainfall  to  irrigation 17 

Interrelation  of  elevation,  exposure,  soil,  and  rainfall 18 

Relation  of  tillage  to  irrigation 20 

Summary  showing  cultivation  practice  in  connection  with  irrigation  in 

Pacific  coast  regions 21 

Generalizations  from  summary 27 

Interculture  in  orchard  and  vineyard 31 

Summary  showing  interculture  in  orchard  and  vineyard 31 

Irrigation  season  and  frequency  of  application  and  amounts  of  water  used. . .  34 

Summary  for  deciduous  fruits  on  the  Pacific  coast 35 

Summary  for  citrus  fruits  in  California 36 

Methods  of  applying  irrigation  water 40 

The  check  system 40 

Specifications  for  homemade  implements  for  the  check  system 42 

Double  checking,  basining.  etc 44 

The  combined  check  and  furrow  method 44 

The  furrow  system 46 

Irrigating  by  large  furrows 46 

Irrigating  by  large  furrows  without  summer  cultivation 8 

Systematic  distribution  of  water  on  hillsides 9 

Irrigating  by  small  furrows 1 

Cement  pipes  and  flumes  for  the  furrow  system 52 

The  board  flume  and  the  furrow  system 53 

5 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATES. 

Page. 

Plate  I.  Map  of  Pacific  coast  region,  showing  area  included  in  investigations.  8 

II.  Fig.  1. — The  "  ridger"  for  levee  making  in  the  check  system.     Fig. 

2. — The  V-shaped  "crowder"  and  metal  dams  or  ' ' tappoons " . . .        40 

III.  Check  system  in  walnut  orchard  in  May,  in  Orange  County,  Cal. 

Scene  on  Katella  Kanch 42 

IV.  Check  system  in  walnut  orchard  in  winter,  in  Orange  County,  Cal. 

Use  of  tappoon  in  diverting  water  from  ditch 42 

V.  Fig.  1. — Furrower  at  work  in  orange*  orchard  of  A.  D.  Bishop.     Fig. 
2. — Use  of  homemade  ridger.     Orange  orchard  of  A.  D.  Bishop, 

Orange  County,  Cal 44 

VI.  Cement  ditches  with  division  gates.     Check  system  in  orange  orchard 

of  Mr.  Sydmer  Ross. 44 

VII.  Fig.  1. — Continuous  cement  flume  with  weirs  to  raise  water  to  outlet 
tubes.     Fig.  2. — Starting  with  the  "jump  scraper"  to  close  a  row 

of  gaps 46 

VIII.  Fig.  1. — Aqueduct  beneath  a  highway  from  a  main  ditch  to  flume 
supplying  a  vineyard.      Fig.  2. — "Large  furrow"  irrigation  of 

vineyard  from  lateral,  following  a  contour  line 46 

IX.  Fig.  1. — The  newer  system  of  furrow  irrigation  at  Riverside,  Cal. 
Fig.  2. — Board  flume  and  furrow  irrigation  at  Fullerton,  Cal.     Fig. 

3. — Irrigation  of  olive  trees  by  large  furrows  near  Pomona,  Cal 46 

X.  Machine  for  making  continuous  cement  pipe  and  flume  at  Riverside, 

Cal 52 

TEXT  FIGURES. 

Fig.  1.  "Ridger"  for  levee  making  in  the  check  system  of  irrigating  trees  and 

vines 43 

2.  "Crowder"  used  in  the  preparation  for  distribution  of  water  in  the 

check  system 43 

3.  "  Jump  scraper "  used  to  complete  levees  made  by  the  "ridger"  for 

the  check  system 44 

4.  Combined  check  and  furrow  irrigation 45 

5.  "Large  furrow"  irrigation  of  orange  trees  at  Palermo,  Butte  County, 

Cal 47 

6.  "Large  furrow"  system  on  hillsides,  with  zigzag  ditches  for  distribu- 

tion, catchment,  and  redistribution 50 

7.  Handy  level  for  locating  large  furrows  in  hillside  irrigation 51 

6 


IRRIGATION  PRACTICE  AMONG  FRUIT  GROWERS 
ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. 


INTRODUCTION. 

In  an  earlier  publication  a  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  the 
writer  attempted  to  state  briefly  the  principles  of  irrigation  applied  to 
fruit  growing  as  deducible  from  the  experience  of  Pacific  coast 
growers  and  to  describe  and  outline  the  irrigation  practices  which 
have  given  best  results.  The  data  for  that  work  were  drawn,  not  alone 
from  the  writers  general  knowledge  of  the  subject,  but  from  wide 
special  investigation  authorized  by  this  Department.  In  1898  very 
careful  inquiry  was  made,  by  correspondence  and  travel,  into  the  local 
irrigation  practices  on  the  Pacific  coast,  in  connection  with  a  study  of 
the  distribution  of  fruit  varieties  under  the  direction  of  G.  B.  Brack- 
ett,  Pomologist  of  this  Department.  This  involved  the  cooperation  of 
nearly  five  hundred  growers  in  the  States  of  Idaho, "Washington,  Ore- 
gon, California,  Nevada,  and  the  Territory  of  Arizona.  In  1899  and 
1900  the  data  already  secured  were  reviewed  and  verified,  and  much 
additional  information  secured  by  supplementary  inquiiy .  The  writer 
has  been  actuated  by  a  desire  to  secure  as  full  and  accurate  exposition 
of  irrigation  practice  in  fruit  growing  as  could  be  secured  by  the  means 
at  command.  The  point  of  view  of  the  grower  has  been  steadily  held, 
but,  of  course,  due  effort  has  been  made  to  avoid  errors  arising  from 
the  personal  equations  of  the  individuals  contributing  to  the  results. 
Whenever  possible  the  inquiry  has  been  pushed  to  the  last  attainable 
point,  so  that  vague  and  misleading  generalizations  might  be  avoided. 
The  subject  is  itself  intricate  and  the  deductions  in  many  cases  fall 
short  of  being  conclusive,  yet  the  effort  to  concentrate  and  interpret 
the  experiences  of  hundreds  of  practical  men  who  are  pledging  their 
livelihoods  to  the  accuracy  of  their  conclusions  should  yield  a  valuable 
contribution  to  the  understanding  of  irrigation  problems  and  supple- 
ment the  data  secured  by  irrigation  engineers,  who  approach  it  from 
other  points  of  view  and  by  other  methods. 

As  the  inquiry  has  been  restricted  to  the  actual  practice  of  irriga- 
tion b^v  the  fruit  grower,  the  writer  denies  himself  discussion  of  the 
general  physical  features- of  the  areas  covered.     These  are  set  forth 

aU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  116. 


8 

quite  fully  in  various  reports,  and  only  enough  data  will  be  offered  to 
locate  the  regions  under  consideration  and  briefly  characterize  condi- 
tions which  are  most  obviously  related  to  irrigation  practice.  No 
attention  will  be  given  to  water  supply,  nor  to  other  matters  usually 
relegated  to  the  sphere  of  engineering.  Data  and  discussion  will  be 
restricted  to  the  distribution  and  use  of  water  after  it  has  reached  the 
land  of  the  irrigator.  By  adhering  to,  this  division  of  the  subject  it 
is  hoped  to  give  this  report  a  special  character  and  value. 

REGION  INCLUDED  IN  THE  INVESTIGATION. 

The  area  included  in  this  inquiry  is  indicated  upon  the  accompany- 
ing map  (PI.  I)  and  comprises,  wholly  or  in  part,  the  States  of 
Idaho,  Washington,  Oregon,  California,  Nevada,  and  the  Territory  of 
Arizona.  The  boundaries  of  the  region  included  are  somewhat  arbi- 
trary and  are  largely  prescribed  by  the  limits  of  the  writer's  sources 
of  original  information,  and  the  included  area  is  not  claimed  to  be  in 
all  respects  similar  throughout  nor  distinct  from  adjoining  regions. 
Yet  this  particular  strip  of  country  adjacent  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  has 
a  characteristic  difference  from  any  other  section  of  the  United  States 
extending  through  so  many  degrees  of  latitude,  in  that  certain  of  the 
more  tender  fruits  of  the  temperate  zone,  including  certain  varieties 
of  grapes  of  the  vinifera  species,  flourish  at  both  its  north  and  south 
extremes.  This  fact  argues  a  similarity  of  natural  conditions  within 
the  limits  of  the  needs  of  these  fruits,  and,  although  facts  are  abun- 
dant to  show  that  the  diversity  of  natural  conditions  within  narrow 
areas  is  exceedingly  great,  there  are  certain  other  natural  conditions 
which  are  widely  common. 

The  map  is  intended  to  give  a  general  view  of  the  distribution  of 
irrigation  practice.  It  is  not  claimed,  of  course,  that  all  the  land 
included  in  each  color  division  is  suited  for  fruit  growing  nor  that 
irrigation  facilities  have  been  developed  to  the  extent  indicated.  It 
is,  however,  approximately  true  that  wherever  suitable  fruit  soils 
exist  and  the  land  is  topographically  adapted  to  fruit  growing  the 
practice  must  as  a  rule  conform  to  that  prescribed  for  the  region.  It 
is  true  also  that  here  and  there,  so  far  as  settlement  and  development 
have  proceeded,  fruit  is  actually  being  grown  on  a  commercial  scale 
with  or  without  irrigation,  as  indicated,  in  the  different  regions  on 
the  map.  The  breadth  of  the  data  on  which  the  map  rests  is  sug- 
gested by  the  tabulations  which  will  follow.  These  data,  supple- 
mented by  the  writer's  personal  acquaintance  with  the  facts,  justify 
the  separation  of  the  included  territory  into  three  divisions,  as  follows: 

THE  NONIRRIGATED  AREA. 

This  comprises  the  immediate  coast  slopes,  so  far  as  the  local  climate 
favors  fruits;  also  the  coast  valleys,  which  are  measurably  protected 


>  Deptof  A^r.,  Bui  108.  Office  of  Expt.  Stations,  Irrigation  Investigations. 


PLATE  I 


^ 


I 


MAP 

or 

PACIFIC  COAST  KECHDS 

SHOWING 

DISTRIBITIOX  OF  IRRIGATION 

EN  GROWING  DECIDUOUS  FRUITS 

LEGEND 

I  No  irrigation 

tial  or  occasional  irrigation     , 
1        |  Regular  irrigation 


9 

from  coast  winds  by  hill  or  mountain  ranges  and  separated  from  the 
interior  valleys  by  higher  mountain  ranges.  This  region  is  broadest 
at  the  north,  where  it  covers  an  elevated  region  extending  from  the 
coast  to  the  eastern  limits  of  the  area  covered  by  the  present  inquiry, 
including  the  northern  panhandle  of  Idaho.  It  extends  southward  on 
the  coast  side,  including  western  Washington  and  Oregon,  widens  with 
the  eastern  trend  of  the  mountains  so  as  to  include  a  portion  of  the 
higher  lands  in  northern  California,  and  then  proceeds  southward  along 
the  coast,  narrowing  as  the  Coast  Range  nears  the  coast  in  northwestern 
California  until  it  reaches  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  South  of  this 
point  the  strictly  nonirrigated  region  is  of  comparatively  small  area  and 
of  small  account,  relatively,  in  commercial  fruit  growing.  In  western 
Washington  and  Oregon,  and  for  a  certain  distance  along  the  coast  in 
northern  California,  the  region  has  humid  characteristics  in  its  heavy 
rainfall  and  long,  rainy  season,  yet  it  has  a  two-season  year,  and  in  some 
localities  the  smaller  rainfall  and  the  stress  of  the  dry  season  bring  the 
fruit  growers  near  to  the  conclusion  that  irrigation  would  sometimes 
be  desirable  and  profitable.  The  same  conditions  exist  in  the  small 
elevated  areas  indicated  as  nonirrigated  in  southern  California. 

THE  PARTIALLY  OR  OCCASIONALLY  IRRIGATED  AREA. 

This  extended  area,  as  shown  on  the  map,  is  based  upon  the  new 
conception  of  the  local  needs  of  irrigation  and  the  very  free  recourse 
to  it,  resulting  from  several  recent  years  of  deficient  rainfall,  which 
produced  a  destructive  drought  in  some  parts  of  California.  This 
drought,  coupled  with  the  demonstrated  fact  that  the  needs  of  mature 
trees  bearing  large  crops  are  much  greater  than  the  needs  of  younger 
trees,  has  resulted  in  a  changed  view  as  to  the  necessity  and  profitable- 
ness of  irrigation  and  has  sharply  modified  practice.  The  area  in 
which  irrigation  is  now  recognized  as  an  important  factor,  either  as  a 
regular  supplement  to  normal  rainfall  or  as  an  occasional  expedient  to 
insure  thrift  of  trees  and  satisfactory  size  and  quality  of  fruit  when 
rainfall  is  less  than  normal,  is  vastly  greater  than  formerly  thought 
possible.  Investment  in  irrigation  works,  undertaken  from  this  new 
point  of  view,  has  proved  very  profitable.  Naturally,  this  area  includes 
the  old  district  where  partial  irrigation  has  always  been  pursued,  and 
is.  in  fact,  a  vast  extension  of  this  district.  The  term  "partial  irriga- 
tion" is,  then,  adopted  to  signify  that  the  main  growth  of  tree  and 
fruit  is  accomplished  by  rainfall.  The  term  "occasional  irrigation" 
indicates  the  use  of  irrigation  when  the  rainfall  falls  below  normal. 

The  area  which  it  is  now  deemed  good  policy  to  irrigate  is  seen 
by  the  map  to  extend  throughout  almost  the  whole  north  and  south 
extension  of  the  region  mapped,  and  in  the  main  to  lie  between  the 
nonirrigated  and  the  regularly  irrigated  regions,  although  it  departs 
from  this  by  following  the  higher  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas. 


10 

The  lower  foothills  of  the  same  range,  both  on  the  east  and  west 
flanks,  and  the  valleys  or  plains  adjacent  thereto,  are  in  the  regularly 
irrigated  region. 

THE  REGULARLY  IRRIGATED  AREA. 

This  is  the  area  where  success  in  fruit  growing  is  conditioned  upon 
irrigation  and  where  rainfall  is  too  uncertain  or  too  limited  in  amount 
to  warrant  dependence  upon  it  as  a  source  of  moisture.  This  region 
is  quite  clearly  defined  on  the  basis  of  actual  practice  in  the  regions  of 
eastern  Washington,  southwestern  Idaho,  California,  and  Arizona 
indicated  on  the  map.  Eastern  Oregon  and  Nevada  are  included 
chiefly  on  a  theoretical  view  of  similar  natural  conditions,  for  very 
little  fruit  is  yet  produced  in  those  areas.  The  eastern  extension  of 
the  region  is  intended  to  be  indefinite,  as  it  evidently  passes  beyond 
the  scope  of  this  inquiry. 

RELATION  OF  PHYSICAL  FEATURES   TO  IRRIGATION  PRACTICE. 

A  table  is  given  on  page  12  which  contains  the  data  upon  which  the 
districting  shown  in  the  map  was  made.  In  this  table  it  has  been 
decided,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  to  omit  the  regions  of  large  rainfall 
on  the  west  side  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  in  Washington  and  Oregon 
and  of  the  Coast  Range  in  northern  California,  except  as  certain  sec- 
tions may  approach  the  dividing  line  between  humid  and  arid  condi- 
tions and  thus  become  valuable  for  comparison.  The  elevated  regions 
are  also  omitted  from  consideration  because  no  fruit  of  commercial 
account  is  grown  above  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet,  and  comparatively 
little  above  4,000  feet.  The  question  of  hardy  fruits  for  greater  ele- 
vations has  hardly  arisen  in  the  Pacific  States  because  of  the  immense 
area  of  available  land  at  lower  levels.  In  this,  and  other  tables  to 
follow,  the  arrangement  of  localities  will  be  from  north  to  south. 

The  first  table  is  intended  to  present,  with  the  exceptions  noted 
above,  a  general  view  of  conditions  under  which  irrigation  is  or  is  not 
practiced  within  the  area  shown  in  the  accompanying  map.  Informa- 
tion was  requested  from  fruit  growers,  first,  as  to  elevation,  both 
above  sea  level  and  above  the  local  river  bottom  or  low  plain;  second, 
the  exposure,  where  slopes  were  involved;  third,  character  of  soil 
upon  which  fruit  was  grown;  and  fourth,  the  local  rainfall.  Where 
reported  rainfall  differs  from  that  shown  by  the  accurate  records  of 
the  Weather  Bureau,  it  is  sometimes  due  to  slightly  different  location 
and  sometimes,  perhaps,  to  mistakes  in  observation.  However  this 
may  be,  the  reports  present  the  best  estimates  the  fruit  growers  could 
make  from  the  data  at  command.  The  fifth  inquiry  was  as  to  the  local 
irrigation  practice.     The  replies  represent  different  phases  of  the  irri- 


11 

gation  of  deciduous  fruits. a  The  fruits  of  the  citrus  family  and  others 
of  semitropical  regions  are  not  included.  On  the  Pacific  coast  these 
semitropieal  fruits  are  nowhere  grown  without  irrigation,  and  they 
are  therefore  excluded  from  consideration,  except  where  specifically 
mentioned,  and  they  will  be  so  mentioned  only  in  connection  with 
districts  where  the  deciduous  fruits  are  grown  without  irrigation. 
Reference  to  small  fruits  is  of  similar  significance.  Almost  everywhere 
the  berry  season  is  extended  by  use  of  water  in  the  dry  part  of  the 
year,  while  the  deciduous  orchard  fruits  adjacent  may  grow  satisfac- 
torily without  it.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  term  "small  fruits"  does 
not  include  grapes  or  cherries. 

A  summary  of  the  data  relating  to  topography,  soil,  rainfall,  and 
irrigation  practice  is  given  in  the  table  following. 

aThe  term  "deciduous  fruits"  is  in  common  use  in  California  to  designate  fruits 
grown  on  deciduous  trees,  and  comprises  the  ordinary  garden  and  orchard  fruits  of 
the  temperate  zone. 


12 


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16 

The  following  generalizations  seem  to  be  warranted  by  the  data  given 
in  the  table: 

RELATION  OF  ELEVATION  AND  EXPOSURE  TO  IRRIGATION. 

It  is  clear  that  elevation  does  not  alone  determine  the  necessity  for 
irrigation.  The  table  shows  it  to  be  practiced  from  20  feet  above  sea 
level  on  the  coast  plain  of  Orange  County,  Cal.,  to  5,000  feet  above 
sea  level  in  Inyo  County,  Cal.,  and  in  southeastern  Idaho.  Nor  is 
height  above  local  river  bottoms  a  ruling  factor,  for  it  is  resorted  to 
both  on  river  bottoms  and  several  hundred  feet  above  them  on  the 
slopes  of  adjacent  foothills.  The  same  is  true  of  exposure.  The  table 
shows  irrigation  on  all  slopes  and  on  lands  practically  flat.  Both 
exposure  and  elevation  are  local  factors  of  some  moment,  however, 
when  they  coincide  with  other  conditions,  as  will  be  shown  later. 

RELATION  OF  SOIL  TO  IRRIGATION. 

The  desirability  of  irrigation  is  unquestionably,  in  many  cases,  con- 
ditioned upon  soil  depth  and  character.  This  relation  has  received 
careful  attention  from  soil  physicists,  and,  although  an  understanding 
of  it  involves  problems  of  plant  growth  and  the  movement  of  water  in 
soils,  the  leading  facts  are  available  in  popular  form.8. 

An  examination  of  the  data  in  the  table  shows  the  prevalence  of 
irrigation  in  localities  where  fruits  are  grown  on  light  loams,  whether 
the  soils  have  resulted  from  local  disintegration  of  rocks  or  have  been 
transported  to  their  present  locations.  This  is  merely  wider  proof  of 
the  fact  of  ordinary  observation  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
coarser  and  less  retentive  the  soil  the  greater  the  necessity  for  irriga- 
tion; but  the  fact  is  strikingly  presented  in  a  number  of  cases.  One 
grower  at  The  Dalles,  Oreg.,  is  located  on  an  upland  loam,  dark 
brown,  formed  of  decomposed  basalt  at  the  base  of  slopes  from  10  to  50 
feet  in  depth — a  soil  holding  moisture  well  and  producing  fruits  with- 
out irrigation.  Another  grower  has  reclaimed  a  sand  flat  along  the 
Columbia  River  by  irrigation,  and  is  growing  tree  fruits  profitably  on 
land  which  originally  was  hardly  worth  81  an  acre,  but  which  his  work 
has  made  worth  one  hundred  times  that  amount.  Here  the  character 
of  the  soil  was  an  important  factor  in  determining  the  necessity  for 
irrigation.  Another  striking  contrast  is  shown  in  four  neighboring 
localities  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  California.  Elevation,  rainfall, 
and  exposure  are  similar,  yet  in  two  cases  irrigation  is  practiced  and 
in  two  it  is  not.     The  explanation  here  is  the  occurrence  in  the  two 

■  Relation  of  Soils  to  Climate,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Weather  Bureau  Bui.  3.  Water  as 
a  Factor  in  the  Growth  of  Plants,  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1894,  p.  165.  Some 
Interesting  Soil  Problems,  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1897,  p.  429.  The  Movement 
and  Retention  of  Water  in  Soils,  Yearbook" U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1898,  p.  399.  The 
Mechanics  of  Soil  Moisture,  TJ.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Division  of  Soils  Bui.  10. 


17 

irrigated  districts  of  an  impervious  hardpan,  locally  called  i;  bedrock," 
which  is  so  near  the  surface  that  the  shallow  layer  of  soil  can  not 
retain  moisture  enough  to  maintain  growth  and  fruiting  in  the  dry 
season. 

RELATION   OF   RAINFALL   TO    IRRIGATION. 

The  amount  of  rain  and  the  time  it  falls  are  clearly  the  most  impor- 
tant factors  in  determining  the  necessity  for  irrigation.  Absence  of 
rainfall  makes  a  desert  of  the  richest  soils  at  all  elevations  and  at  all 
exposures.  Its  only  remedy  is  irrigation.  But  there  are  degrees  of 
poverty  in  rainfall,  and  thorough  tillage  will  often  lessen  the  ill  effects 
of  a  scanty  supply,  so  that  an  oasis  may  be  made  to  appear  without 
water  beyond  that  supplied  from  the  clouds.  This  is  the  triumph  of 
tillage  in  the  arid  region  which  is  to  be  considered  in  another  con- 
nection. 

The  line  between  adequate  and  insufficient  rainfall  can  not  be  closely 
drawn.  It  is  true  that  there  is  a  striking  general  agreement  between 
the  boundaries  of  the  nonirrigated.  partially  irrigated,  and  wholly 
irrigated  regions  on  the  map  which  accompanies  this  report  and  the 
boundaries  of  a  map  showing  amounts  of  rainfall,  but  there  would 
appear,  on  a  closer  examination  of  the  facts  as  presented  in  the  tabula- 
tion above,  very  marked  departures  of  irrigation  boundaries  from 
rainfall  boundaries,  so  that  if  one  should  undertake  to  determine  the 
need  of  irrigation  by  the  local  rainfall  figures  alone  and  proceed  to 
investment  on  that  basis,  he  would  be  quite  likely  to  lose  his  time  and 
money.  This  has  already  been  suggested  in  speaking  of  the  relations 
of  soils  and  irrigation. 

It  is  obvious  that  there  must  be  somewhere  a  point  at  which  the 
rainfall  is  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  crops  and  another  point  beyond 
which  it  becomes  ample  or  even  excessive.  But  these  points  are  not 
tixed.  They  vary  with  the  character  of  the  crop,  the  soil,  exposure, 
the  distribution  of  the  rainfall  through  the  year,  and  the  local  temper- 
atures which  fix  the  length  of  the  growing  season.  With  reference, 
however,  to  the  growth  of  common  orchard  fruits,  which  are  alone  in 
view  in  this  discussion,  the  table  shows  that  irrigation  is  not  resorted 
to  at  a  number  of  points  where  the  local  rainfall  sometimes  is  as  low 
as  15  or  16  inches,  but  that  with  less  than  that  amount,  unless  the  soil 
receive  additional  moisture  by  underflow,  it  is  essential.  On  the 
other  hand,  irrigation  is  regularly  practiced  in  some  localities  where 
the  rainfall  sometimes  rises  to  15  inches.  The  table  does  afford,  how- 
ever, ample  evidence  that,  under  average  conditions  of  soil  depth  and 
retentiveness  in  the  region  under  consideration,  the  amount  of  rain- 
fall which  may  be  considered  adequate  for  orchard  trees  under  good 
cultivation  is  about  20  inches.  So  definitely  is  this  amount  fixed  in 
the  minds  of  some  California  growers  as  meeting  the  needs  of  the  tree 
15013— No.  108—02 — -2 


,8 

for  satisfactory  growth  and  fruitage  that,  when  rainfall  is  less  than 
that  amount,  irrigation  is  at  once  resorted  to  to  supply  the  shortage. 
An  interesting  confirmation  of  this  view  is  found  in  the  reports  from 
growers  in  the  humid  region  along  the  coast,  which  comprises  the 
unirrigated  portion  on  the  accompanying  map.a  In  the  Sound  region 
of  Washington  the  rainfall  is  about  25  inches,  and  correspondents 
state  that  although  irrigation  is  not  practiced  it  "  might  be  beneficial." 
The  same  opinion  is  expressed  by  growers  in  the  Rogue  River  Valley 
in  southern  Oregon,  where  rainfall  is  but  little  above  20  inches  and 
conditions  resemble  those  in  the  valleys  of  northern  California. 

INTERRELATION   OF  ELEVATION,    EXPOSURE,    SOIL,    AND 

RAINFALL. 

The  great  variety  of  conditions  under  which  irrigation  is  found 
either  desirable  or  unnecessary  is  intelligible  only  upon  consideration 
of  the  interrelation  of  elevation,  exposure,  soil,  and  rainfall.  In 
northern  Idaho  and  northeastern  Washington  there  is  an  elevated 
region  of  rolling  land  with  an  average  rainfall  of  a  little  above  20 
inches,  a  clay  loam  often  of  considerable  depth  and  underlaid  by  clay 
and  naturally  well  drained,  yet  retentive  of  moisture  by  virtue  of  its 
fine  texture  resulting  from  decomposition  of  basaltic  rock.  Irrigation 
is  found  unnecessary.  The  depth  and  character  of  the  soil  and  its 
slope  and  exposure  combine  to  insure  maximum  duty  of  rainfall.  In 
adjacent  valleys  of  both  Idaho  and  Washington  there  are  lands  but 
little  nearer  sea  level  and  with  only  a  little  less  rainfall,  but  with  soil 
of  alluvial  character  or  resulting  from  volcanic  action  or  decompo- 
sition of  granite,  all  being  coarse,  light,  and  nonretentive.  Here 
the  character  of  the  soil  reduces  the  duty  of  rainfall,  and  regular 
irrigation  is  found  essential  to  the  growth  of  fruits. 

At  lower  levels,  both  in  Idaho  and  Washington,  are  found  fruit 
regions  where  manifestly  deficient  rainfall  accompanies  deep  though 
nonretentive  soil,  higher  heat,  and  greater  evaporation,  and  desert 
conditions  are  only  relieved  by  ample  and  systematic  irrigation.  And 
yet  there  occur  also  exceedingly  fine  soils  in  some  portions  of  the 
desert  regions  which  are  very  retentive  of  moisture  and  would  secure 
the  highest  duty  from  rainfall  if  there  were  enough  of  it  to  enable 
them  to  act  effectively.  Upon  such  soils  a  maximum  duty  of  irriga- 
tion water  is  secured,  and  the  amount  required  is  relatively  small. 
The  occurrence  of  these  conditions  is  not  alwa}Ts  to  be  measured  by 
large  areas.  They  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  same  region, 
in  some  cases,  in  fact,  within  the  limits  of  the  same  farm,  making  an 
understanding  of  their  influences  and  effects  all  the  more  essential. 

In  California  similar  instances  of  the  interrelation  of  soil,  rainfall, 
exposure,  and  local  climate,  and  their  influence  upon  horticultural 

a  These  reports  are  omitted  from  the  table. 


19 

practice  with  reference  to  irrigation,  could  be  cited  in  great  number. 
A  few  must  suffice. 

On  the  famous  river-bank  fruit  land  of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  with 
loams  of  great  depth  and  good  retentiveness.  and  with  an  average 
rainfall  of  approximately  20  inches,  irrigation  is  resorted  to  only  in 
years  of  minimum  rainfall,  when  the  precipitation  is  perhaps  only 
about  half  the  average.  At  nearly  the  same  level,  as  already  cited, 
where  the  soil  is  shallow  and  overlies  hardpan.  regular  irrigation  is 
required.  But  still  more  marked  contrast  is  found. in  the  foothills 
within  sight  of  these  valley  fruit  lands,  where  with  twice  the  average 
rainfall  irrigation  must  begin  early  in  the  summer  and  continue  until 
autumn  is  well  advanced,  because,  first,  the  slope  is  so  rapid  that  much 
rainfall  is  lost  by  run  off;  second,  the  soil  is  too  shallow  above  bed  rock 
to  hold  much  water.  Even  here,  however,  there  comes  in  a  local  varia- 
tion of  measurable  effect.  When  the  soil  lies  upon  vertical  plates  of 
bed  rock  much  water  is  retained  between  them  and  is  capable  of  being 
reached  by  tree  roots,  while  soil  lying  upon  ffat  plates  of  rock  has  no 
such  subterranean  reservoir.  In  the  foothill  region  there  also  occurs 
exceptional  exposure  from  slopes  facing  the  midsummer  sun  in  an 
atmosphere  whose  dryness  is  but  slightly  ameliorated  by  the  influence 
of  air  currents  from  the  coast. 

In  the  valley  and  foothill  contrast,  just  cited,  the  unirrigated  valley 
looks  up  to  the  irrigated  foothills.  There  are  also  places  where  unir- 
rigated hill  slopes  look  down  upon  irrigated  valleys.  The  uplands  of 
San  Diego  County  are  nearer  the  coast  than  those  above  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley.  They.  too.  have  a  rainfall  usually  ample  for  deciduous 
fruits  suited  to  their  elevation.  Their  rolling  plateaus  of  deep  soil, 
free  from  excessive  heat  and  evaporation  which  occur  on  highlands  far- 
ther inland  and  500  miles  farther  north,  produce  very  successfully 
without  irrigation.  In  this  region,  however,  the  rainfall  in  the  val- 
leys below  is  often  less  than  the  needs  of  even  deciduous  fruit  trees, 
and  waters  flowing  from  mountain  snows  through  a  region  of  unirri- 
gated uplands  must  be  used  to  irrigate  them. 

Still  another  striking  contrast,  and  one  involving  another  and 
wholly  different  factor,  is  found  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  Near 
Visalia.  '2  feet  above  river  bottom  and  4  feet  above  the  surrounding 
plains,  there  is  a  large  area  of  deep  alluvial  soil  with  much  decayed 
vegetable  matter.  The  land  is  moistened  by  underflow  from  the 
river,  and,  though  the  rainfall  is  but  Ti  inches,  deciduous  fruits  are 
grown  without  irrigation.  In  the  same  county,  and  only  18  miles  dis- 
tant, there  are  areas  of  rich  loam  mixed  with  granitic  sand  16  to  IS 
feet  deep.  In  this  locality,  though  the  rainfall  is  11^  inches,  irriga- 
tion is  practiced  freely,  as  the  loss  of  moisture  in  summer  is  very 
great. 

Many  more  quite  as  striking  and  effective  illustrations  might  be 
given  of  the  impossibility  of  accurate  generalization  on  geographical, 


20 

or  purely  meteorological  data  alone.  Evidently,  however,  it  is  clear 
that  the  need  of  irrigation  is  conditioned  upon  so  man}7  factors  of 
earth,  air,  and  water,  as  well  as  upon  the  needs  of  the  plant  grown 
and  the  system  of  tillage,  that  any  wise  decision  regarding  the  needs 
of  a  particular  locality  can  be  reached  only  after  considering  and 
weighing  all  elements  entering  into  the  problem. 

RELATION   OF   TILLAGE    TO   IRRIGATION. 

Tillage,  particularly  during  the  dry  season  of  the  year,  under  some 
conditions,  directly  determines  the  need  of  irrigation,  and  is  to  a  certain 
extent,  as  the  popular  phrase  goes,  a  substitute  for  irrigation.  Under 
all  conditions  surface  tillage,  by  promoting  conservation  of  soil  moist- 
ure, is  determinative  of  the  actual  duty  of  water,  whether  it  be  from 
rainfall  or  irrigation.  The  effect  of  frequent  surface  tillage  has  been 
accurately  determined  by  investigation  and  experiment,  both  in  humid 
and  arid  regions. a  These  experiments  fully  support  the  view  taught 
by  the  experience  of  about  half  a  century  in  California,  in  accordance 
with  which  thorough  winter  and  summer  tillage  has  been  so  widely 
practiced  in  the  arid«section  as  an  essential  to  successful  fruit  growing. 
There  are,  however,  some  conditions  in  which  clean  cultivation  dur- 
ing the  season  of  highest  heat  may  not  be  the  best  practice,  as  will 
appear  later. 

The  relations  of  tillage  to  soil  moisture  include  both  reception  and 
conservation.  For  the  reception  of  moisture,  deep  work  with  the 
plow,  and  sometimes  with  the  subsoiler  also,  is  almost  indispensable. 
To  retain  this  moisture  and  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  its  escape 
into  the  thirsty  air  of  the  arid  region  by  surface  evaporation,  less 
depth  and  more  thorough  surface  pulverization  are  required.  Recent 
practice  has  been  tending  toward  deeper  summer  cultivation,  so  that 
5  or  6  inches  of  loose,  finely  divided  soil  is  now  obtained  where 
formerly  half  that  depth  was  considered  adequate.  It  has  also  been 
shown  that  frequent  stirring  of  this  fine  surface  layer  checks  evapora- 
tion, even  when  no  water  is  applied  to  compact  the  surface  or  where 
no  weeds  grow  to  draw  upon  the  soil  moisture.  In  a  word,  the  aim  of 
tillage  in  the  arid  region,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  moisture  supply  in  the 
soil,  consists  in  opening  the  soil  to  rain,  or  to  irrigation,  and  in  subse- 
quently closing  it  to  evaporation.  How  this  is  done  b}7  the  different 
growers  over  the  large  area  included  in  this  report  is  shown  in  the 
table  following. 

a  Wisconsin  Sta.  Rpt.  1894,  p.  279;  California  Sta.  Rpt.  1897-98,  p.  57. 


21 
Summary  showing  cultivation  practice  in  connection  with  irrigation  in  Pacific  coast  region. 


Name  and  locality. 

Soil. 

Irrigation. 

Cultivation. 

IDAHO. 

W.  A.  Sample,  Black-  1 

foot. 
Edgar  Wilson,    Boise 

City. 

A.    McPherson,  Boise 
City. 

Robert  Millikin,  Boise 
City. 

W.  W.  Wells,  New  Ply- 
mouth. 

W.G.  Whitney,  Payette 

George  Littlc.Caldwell 

sandy  and  gravelly; 

alluvial  bottom. 
Sandy,       sagebrush, 

well  drained. 

Dark     and      sandy 
loams. 

Volcanic  ash  and  de- 
composed rock. 

Clayish  alluvial;  lit- 
tle sand. 

Sandy  loam 

Sandy,  sagebrush 

Bench,  granitic  loam 
Bench,  sandy  loam . . . 

Rich, sandy, alluvial  . 

Black  sandy  and  clay 
loams. 

All  fruits  irrigated 

.....do 

A  good  cultivation  after  each 
irrigation. 

Cultivation  after  each  irriga- 
tion; more  cultivation  re- 
places some  irrigation. 

One  plowing  and  sixteen  to 
twenty  cultivations  — not 
later  than  August  15. 

Four  plowings  and  six  culti- 
vations— less  i  rrigat  ion ,  m  ore 
frequent  cultivation.        * 

Cultivation  every  two  weeks 
to  August  1:  only  once  or 
twice  after  that. 

Two  to  four  cultivations. 

Four  cultivations. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

....do 

....do 

Do. 

....do 

One  cultivation    before    and 

L.  A.  Porter,- Lewiston. 

H.  A.  Russell,  Kend- 
rick. 

do 

Little  or   no  irriga- 
tion. 
No  irrigation 

one  after  each  irrigation. 

One  plowing  and  one  deep 
cultivation  after  each  irriga- 
tion. 

One  plowing  and  three  culti- 
vations. 

One  plowing  and  three  or  four 

•WASHINGTON. 

C.  Risteau,  Moran  Prai- 
rie. 

do 

cultivations 

One  plowing  and  two  cultiva- 
tions. 
Two   plowings   followed    bv 

Alluvial  bottom  and 

upland  loams. 
Clay  and  sandy  loams. 

do 

Prairie. 
D.  \Y.  Bridgman,  Latah 

W.E.  Schneider,  Latah 

F.  A.  English,   Farm- 
ington. 

J.  A.  Balmer,  Pullman  . 
Theo.  Smith,  Colfax  . 

do 

harro  wings 

Plow  once  and  harrow  May  1; 
cultivate  June  1;  hoe  bal- 
ance of  the  season. 

Nine  cultivations  with  rolling 
harrow,  three  at  each  work- 
ing, in  April,  June,  and 
August. 

One  plowing,  one  harrowing, 
and  three  cultivations  not 
later  than  July  15. 

Six  cultivations,  securing  dust 
mulch,  and  then  keeping 
down  weeds. 

Six  to  twelve  cultivations. 

do 

Clay  and  sandy  loams. 
do 

do 

do 

Upland  loams 

do 

George  Ruedy,  Colfax  . 

Jos.  De  Long,  Endicott. 
E.  H.  Hanford,  Oakes- 

Moist  clay  loam 

do 

Clay  and  sandy  loams. 
Upland  loam 

do 

....do 

later  than  August  15. 
Two  or  three  cultivations. 
Four  to  eight  cultivations. 

Two  plowings  and  two  culti- 
vations. 

dale. 
A.  L.  Smith,  Spokane  . . 

E.  P.  Gilbert,  Spokane  . 

J.  H.  Friedlander,  Wil- 
bur. 

Allen  Emerson,  Cres- 
ton. 

J.  X.  James,  Waitsburg. 

Clay  and  sandy  loams. 
do 

Small  fruits  only 

Light      and     heavy 
loams. 

Sandy  loam  and  vol- 
canic ash. 

Volcanic   loam,  clay 
subsoil. 

All  except  apples 

All  fruits  irrigated  . . . 
do 

later  than  September. 
One  plowing  and  five  or  six 

cultivations. 
Three  cultivations. 

Cultivate  after  each  irriga- 
tion, June  to  August. 

Three  times  in  spring  with 
shovel  plow:  afterwards 
twice  with  cultivator:  then 
hoe  as  weeds  start. 

Three  to  five  cultivations. 

do 

Middle  Ahtanum. 

C.  S.  Simpson,   North 

Yakima. 
T.  F.  Dice,  Prescott 

Light  loam 

do 

Loose  loam 

do 

Two  plowings  and  two  culti- 
vations. 

Two  plowings,  three  or  four 
harrowings.  Old  trees  in 
clover. 

One  plowing  alternate  years; 
six  cultivations  each  year. 

F.    E.    Thompson, 

Light     and     heavy 
loams. 

Volcanic  ash  and  sand 

Basaltic  loam 

do 

Parker. 

Elias  Marble,  Wenat- 

do 

chee. 
E.  Keohler,  Wenatchee 

do 

C.  Robinson,  Chelan . . . 

Sandy  loam 

Few  trees  irrigated . . . 

No     irrigation,     but 
moisture  is  short. 

Cultivate  everv  two  or  three 

H.  H.  Spader,  Chelan  . . 
H.  C.  Cook,  White  Sal- 

Loam, bench  lands... 

Sandy,  gravelly,  and 
clay  loams. 

weeks  until  August. 

Deep  plowing  in  fall  followed 
by  three  cultivations  in 
spring  and  summer. 

One  plowing  and  two  cultiva- 
tions. 

mon. 

22 

Summary  choiring  cultivation  practice  in  connection  with  irrigation,  etc. — Continued. 


Name  and  locality. 


OREGON. 

S.  A.  Miller,  Milton 


Thomas  Spence,  Mil- 
ton. 

H.  W.  Oliver,  Summer- 
ville. 

C.  Walters,  Athena 

R.  H.  Webber.  The 
Dalles. 

Seufert  Bros.,  The 
Dalles. 

E.  L.  Smith,  Hood 
River. 

W.  Dimmick,  Hubbard 


E.  R.  Lake,  Corvallis. . . 
R.  C.  Brown,  Roseburg. 
J.  R.  Casey,  Ashland  . . . 
Max  Pracht,  Ashland. . 
C.  F.  Stewart,  Medford. 

CALIFORNIA. 

Coast  valleys. 
L.  M.  Babcock,  Ukiah  . 


E.  W.  King,  Ukiah 

A.E.Burnham,  Healds- 
burg. 

J.  R.  Little,  Mount  Oli- 
vet. 

W.  H.  Pepper,   Peta- 

luma. 
Robert  Hall,  Sonoma.. 


H.Baskerville.  St.  Hel- 
ena. 


E.  F.  Cook,  Napa 

George  Husmann.  Napa 
Leonard  Coates,  Napa  . 


John    Swett   &    Son, 
Martinez. 

B.  H.  Upham,   Marti- 
nez. 

F.  Barbour,  Clayton  . . 

J.C.Shinn.Niles 


E.M.  Ehrhorn,  Moun- 
tain view. 


Soil. 


Black  alluvial. 


Light  loam 

Sandy  river  bottom  . 
Sandy  and  clay  loams 

Black  and  red  loams  . 


Basaltic  loam 


Sandy   and  gravelly 

loams. 
Granitic    loam   over 

clay. 
Granitic  loams 


Deep  red  and  black 
loams. 


Light     and      heavy 

loams. 
Black  gravelly  loam . . 
Sandy  and  gravelly 
loam. 


Dark,  gravelly  loam. 


Clay  and  sandy  loams. 
Alluvial  over  clav 


Rich,  deep,  loose  loam 

Heavy  valley  loam  . . . 
....do 

Well-drained  loam  . . . 
Chieflv  black  loams.. 


Irrigation. 


Heavy     valley    and 
light  hill  loams. 

Sandy  and  clay  loams. 

Heavy  and  light  allu- 
vial loams. 

Heavy  and  light  loams 


All  fruits  irrigated 

....do 

No  irrigation 


....do 

Small  fruits  onlv 


All  fruits  irrigated 
Small  fruits  only  . . 


Might  be  of   advan- 
tage. 

Occasional  for  small 

fruits. 
Profitable   for  small 

fruits. 
No  irrigation , 


For  late  berries. 
No  irrigation  . . . 


Small  fruits  only 


....do 

No  irrigation 


.do 


.do.... 
.do.... 


Small  fruits  onlv 


No  irrigation 

Citrus  fruits  only 

No  irrigation 

do 


Cultivation. 


Citrus  fruits  only 


.do 


A.  Block,  Santa  Clara . .    Sedimentary  loam 


W.  Pfeffer,  Gubserviile. 
S.  P.  Sanders,  San  Jose  . 


Retentive  clay  loam. 

Heavy  and  light  sedi- 
mentary loams. 


Citrus    fruits     only, 
except  in  dry  years. 

Irrigation  increasing , 


Irrigation  according 
to  amount  of  rain- 
fall. 

No  irrigation 


Winter  irrigation  to 
supplement  rain- 
fall. 


One  plowing  and  three  culti- 
vations after  irrigations. 
Six  cultivations. 

Plowing  and  cultivating  three 
times,  May  to  August. 

Clean  cultivation. 

One  plowing  and  six  to  ten 
cultivations  for  orchard. 

Clean  cultivation. 

One  plowing  and  harrowing 
and  frequent  cultivation 
until  August 

One  plowing  and  clean  culti- 
vation nearly  until  fruit 
ripens. 

One  plowing,  disking  and  har- 
rowing six  to  ten  times. 

Clean  cultivation. 

Do. 

One  plowing  and  three  culti- 
vations. 

Plow  in  March  and  harrow 
three  times;  cultivate  two 
to  four  times,  not  later  than 
July  15. 


Clean  cultivation  for  orchard. 

Do. 

Two  plowings:  four  to  six  cul- 
tivations, followed  by  clod- 
mashing  both  ways. 

Two  plowings,  followed  by 
harrowing;  clodmashing; 
two  cultivations, 

One  or  two  plowings  and  two 
or  three  harrowings. 

Two  plowings  with  harrow 
after  second:  disk  followed 
by  chain  harrow,  roller,  or 
clodmasher. 

For  orchard  and  vineyard 
plow  and  cross  plow,  with 
harrowings;  cultivate  to 
keep  surface  loo* 

Two  plowings  and  eight  cul- 
tivations. 

One  plowing,  two  cultivations 
with  disk. 

One  plowing  followed  by  disk 
and  other  cultivators. 

Two  plowings  and  six  cultiva- 
tions with  disk,  cutaway, 
etc. 

Two  plowings  followed  by  har- 
row: cultivators  and  hand 
hoeing  afterwards. 

One  plowing,  two  cultiva- 
tions. 

Plowing  and  harrowingspades 
and  clodmasher— four  to 
eight  workings  in  all. 

Two  plowings  and  harrow- 
ings; roll  and  cultivate  un- 
til July  15. 

Two  plowings  and  eight  culti- 
vations. 

Two  plowings  and  three  cul- 
tivations. 

Two  plowings  and  disk  as 
needed  to  keep  clean  and 
loose. 


23 
Summary  shewing  cultivation practice  m  connection  with  irrigation,  etc. — Continued. 


Name  and  locality. 


Soil. 


Irrigation. 


Cultivation. 


cali  forxi  a— com '  d . 

Coast  valleys— Cont'd. 

F.  M.  Righter,  Camp- 
bell. 
A.  C.  Fuller,  Evergreen 


light 


H.  Hoops.  Wrights 

E.  F.  Adams.  Wrights  . 
W.H.Aiken.  Wrights. 


R.  W.  Eaton.  Watson- 

ville. 
J.  A.  McCune.  Watson- 

ville. 
Edward  Berwick,  Mon 

tery. 
J.  V.Webster.  Creston. . 

J.  A.  Girard,Cayr. 

El  wood  Cooper.  Santa 
Barbara. 

O.  N.Cadwell,  Carpen- 
teria. 

Russell  Heath.  Carpen- 
taria. 

J.  B.  Alvord,  Oxnard. . 

H.  J.  Dennison.  Nord- 
hoff. 


Irrigation  when  rain- 
fall is  light. 
do Irrigation    for    cher- 
ries    and     berries: 
other  fruits  if  nec- 
-  iry. 
Irrigation    for    small 

fruits  onlv. 
....do 


Heavy      and 

loams. 


.do 


.do 


Clay  and  sandy  loams.    No  irrigation 


Black      and     sandy 

loams. 
....do 


Irrigation    for  small 

fruits  only. 
No  irrigation 


Sandy  loam 


Alluvial    and    ridge 

loams. 
Deep  loams 


Chiefly  in  winter  for 

orchard. 
Only  for  small  fruits. . 

No  irrigation 


Heavy      and      light 

loams. 
....do 


Irrigation   for    citrus 

fruits. 
do 


L.C.Gridley.Nordhoff. 

F.   S.   Thacher.  Nord- 
hoff. 


N.  J.  Bond,  Nordhoff  . 
R.  Dunn,  Fillmore  . . 

J.  C.  Scott.  Simi 

L.  F.  Gay,  Piru 


Clay       and      sandy 

loams. 
Heavy      and      light 

loams. 

Alluvial    and  sandy 
loams. 


Clay  loam 


.do 


do 

For  small  fruits  only 
For  citrus  fruits  only 

do 


Clay  and  sandy  loams. 
Medium  loams 


L.    T.    Qarnsey,    San 

Fernando. 

C.  Forman,  Toluca 

O.  E.   Roberts.   Cahu- 

enga. 
M.  C.  Graham,  South 

Pasadena. 
F.  E.  Gray,  Alhambra. 

Pollard  Brothers,  Al- 
hambra. 

J.  A.  Graves,  Alham- 
bra. 

A     B.    Bixby,     Sierra 
Madre. 

A.    S.   Chapman.    San 

Gabriel. 
P.     F.     Cogswell.     El 

Monte. 

J.  F.  Branch,  Artesia.. 


Clay  and  sandy  loams. 

Dark,  also  sandy,  and 
gravelly  loams. 

Clav  and  sandv  loams. 


Citrus   fruits:    others 
would  be  benefited. 


No  irrigation  for  de- 
ciduous fruits. 

Citrus  fruits,  but  all 
would  be  better  for 
it. 

No  irrigation 


Sandy  loam 

Heavy  to  light  loams. 
Clay  and  sandy  loams. 
Gravelly  loam 


Irrigation  for  citrus 
and  once  for  apri- 
cots and  peaches. 

For  citrus  fruits. 


None   for   deciduous 

fruits. 
....do 


Citrus      and      small 

fruits. 
do 


Clay  and  sandy  loam 
and  gravelly  sedi- 
ment. 

Decomposed  granite 
loam. 

do 


.do 


Citrus  and  small 
fruits  and  decidu- 
ous are  better  for  it. 

Citrus  fruits 


Sandy  loam Citrus  fruits  and  wal- 
nuts. 


Sedimentary  loam. . 


Sandv  loam 


Walnuts     chiefly 

grown,  irrigated  in 

dry  years. 
Underflow    fatal     to 

trees:       good       for 

grapes. 


One  plowing;  cultivation  twice 
a  month.  March  to  June. 

One  plowing  and  three  to  six 
cultivations. 


One  plowing,  two  to  four  cul- 
tivations. 

Two  plowings  and  three  culti- 
vations. 

Two  plowings.  and  harrow 
frequently  until  fruit  nearly 
matures.  ' 

Two  plowings.  two  harrow- 
ings.  two  cultivations. 

One  plowing  and  three  culti- 
vations. 

Two  plowings  and  often  six 
cultivations. 

Two  plowings  and  two  culti- 
vations. 

Two  plowings  and  cultiva- 
tion.-. 

Plow  twice:  cultivate  about 
rive  times. 

Clean  cultivation. 

One  plowing,  followed  by  clean 
cultivation. 

Two  plowings  and  six  culti- 
vations. 

One  plowing,  three  cultiva- 
tions, and  hoeing  around 
trees,  using  harrow  after 
each  rain. 

One  plowing  and  cultivation 
after  each  irrigation. 

Plow  once,  cultivate  three 
times  between  irrigations: 
unirrigated  lands  cultivated 
all  the  season. 

One  plowing  with  cultivator 
and  harrow  after  each  rain. 

Three  or  four  cultivations. 


One  plowing  and  four  to  eight 

cultivations. 
Cultivate    once  a    month    or 

more  after  each  irrigation. 

One  plowing:  three  culti- 
vations: one  harrowing:  one 
leveling. 

Two  plowings  and  frequent 
cultivations. 

About  eight  cultivations. 

Plow    twice,    cultivate    once 

each  month. 
Plow  or  cultivate  after  each 

rain  or  irrigation. 
Two    plowings    and     twenty 

cultivations. 

Plow  four  or  rive  times  and 
cultivate  at  least  twice  a 
month. 

After  each  rain  or  irrigation 
plow  in  winter  and  cultivate 
in  summer. 

Four  plowings  and  ten  culti- 
vations. 

Two  plowings  and  four  to  six 
cultivation-. 


24 

Summary  shotting  cultivation  practice  in  connection  with  irrigatkm,  etc. — Continued. 


Name  and  locality. 

Soil. 

Irrigation. 

Cultivation. 

CALIFORNIA — Cont'd. 

Coast  valleys — Cont'd. 

W.  W.  Bliss,  Duarte  ... 

Light      and     heavy 
loams. 

Citrus  fruits 

Cultivation    after   each    irri- 

gation. 

A.  C.  Thomson,  Duarte. 

Decomposed  granite. . 

do 

Three  plowings  and  six  to 
eight  cultivations. 

H.  D.  Englehart,  Glen- 
dora. 

Granite    and    sandy 

do 

Plow  fall  and  spring;  frequent 
summer  cultivation. 

loams. 

H.  D.  Briggs,  Azusa 

Sandy  loam 

All  fruits  irrigated  . . . 

Heavy  soil  plow  twice  and 
cultivate  six  to  ten  times; 

sandy  soil  cultivation  with- 

out plowr. 

A.  B.  Smith, San  Dimas. 

Deep  sandy  loam 

Citrus     and       small 

Two    plowings    and    five    to 

fruits. 

eight  cultivations. 

W.  Q.  Custer,  Covina  . . . 

Sandy  loam 

All  fruits  irrigated  . . . 

Two  plowings;  cultivate  both 
ways  at  least  twice  a  month. 

H.  E.  Cheeseboro,  Co- 

 do 

Citrus  fruits 

Two  plowings;  cultivation 
every  six  weeks. 

vina. 

J.  R.  King,  Covina 

Medium  sandy  loam  . 

do 

Three  "winter  plowings;  sum- 
mer and  fall  cultivation 
once  a  month. 

J.  W.Mills,  Pomona.... 

Light      and      heavy 

All  fruits  irrigated  . . . 

Nine  or    ten    workings  in  a 

loams. 

year  with  plow,  harrow,  and 
cultivator. 

Armstrong  &  Young, 
Pomona. 

do 

do 

Two  plowings  and  cultiva- 
tions once  or  twice  a  month. 

J.  E.  Packard,  Pomona. 

Sandy  loam 

Citrus  fruits  and  wal- 

Two   plowings;      cultivation 

nuts. 

once  a  month. 

G.  F.  Ferris, Claremont. 

Heavy      and      light 

All  fruits  irrigated  . . . 

Plow  both   ways  spring  and 

loams. 

fall;  harrow"  after  spring 
plowing;  cultivate  after 
each  irrigation. 

E.  Squires,  Claremont. . 

Citrus  fruits 

About  ten  cultivations. 

W.     T.     Strawbridge, 

Heavy  loams 

Citrus  fruits  and  wal- 

One plowing  and  six  to  eight 

cultivations. 

Whittier. 

nuts. 

I.  H.  Cammack,  Whit- 

Dark heavy  and  light 

do :.. 

Four  to  eight  cultivations. 

tier. 

sandy  loams. 

L.  L.  Bequette,  Rivera  . 

Moist  sandy  land 

Underflow  generally 

Plow    twice     and     cultivate 

adequate. 

three  times  when  no  irriga- 
tion is  used. 

L.  B.  Benchley,  Fuller- 

Light      sandy      and 

Irrigation  for  all  fruits 

One   plowing    and    eight    to 

ton. 

moist  heavy  loam.- 

save  some  peaches, 
apricots,  and  l;  rapes. 

twelve  cultivations. 

J.  B.  Neff,  Anaheim 

Heavy      and      light 

All  fruits  irrigated  . . . 

Some  years  one  plowing  and 

loams  and  sediment. 

six  cultivations;  other  years 
twice  as  many. 

F.  S.  Gates,  Anaheim  .. 

do 

do 

Two  plowings  and  cultivation 
after  each  rain  or  irrigation. 

C.  P.  Taft,  Orange 

Medium     and     light 

do 

Cultivation  after  each  irriga- 

loams. 

tion. 

A.  D.  Bishop,  Orange  .. 

Sandy  and    gravelly 

Citrus  fruits;  rainfall 

Two  plowings  and  eight   to 

loams;  alluvial. 

sometimes  enough 
for  deciduous. 

ten  cultivations. 

D.  E.  Smith,  Santa  Ana 

Chiefly  light  loams... 

All  fruits  irrigated  . . . 

Six  to  twelve  cultivations. 

J.   W.   King,    Garden 

Heavy,  moist  loam. . . 

Underflow  too    near 

Spring  and  fall  plowing;  fre- 

Grove. 

surface     for    some 
fruits. 

quent  summer  cultivation. 

Judson  Williams,  Fall- 

Heavy      and       light 

All    fruits  irrigated 

Plow-    under    winter   growth 

brook. 

loams. 

except  in  wet  years. 

and  give  frequent  summer 
cultivation. 
One  plowing;  cultivate  after 
each  winter  rain,  and  once 

Jobes  Brothers,  Escon- 

do 

do 

dido. 

a  month  in  summer. 

0.  Hudson,  Valley  Cen- 

Black and  red  sandy 

citrus  fruits  irrigated. 

Plow  once  and  keep  fine  sur- 

ter. 

loam  over  granitic 
subsoil. 

face  by  frequent  working. 

J.  M.  Hyne,  Twin  Oaks. 

(lay  loam  and  black 

No  irrigation 

Plow  in  January  and  March; 

lowland. 

follow  with  six  cultivations. 

L.  E.  Kent,  Poway 

Light      and      heavy 

Small  fruits  irrigated 

One  plowing  and  eight  culti- 

loams. 

and    desirable    for 
others  some  years. 

vations;  more  in  dry  years. 

H.  Culbertson,  El  Ca- 

Red  foothill  loam  and 

All  fruits  irrigated  — 

One  plowing  and  eight  culti- 

jon. 

alluvial  bottom. 

vations. 

G.    P.    Hall,    Lemon 

Light     and       heavy 

do 

Cultivation    every  month  or 

Grove. 

loams  in  great  va- 
riety. 
Red,  granitic  loam. . . . 

oftener. 

J.     P.     Jones,    Linda 

do 

One  plowing  and  cultivation 
once  a  month. 

"  Vista. 

25 

Summary  showing  cultivation  practice  in  connection  with  irrigation,  etc. — Continued. 


Name  and  locality. 


CALIFORNIA— cont'd. 

interior    ral!ri/s    and 
foothills. 

S.  C.   Dondore.   Lake- 
side. 


L.Yates,  Elsinore 

J.  \Y.  Porter, Temescal 


J.  G.  Reinnardt.  San 

.Jacinto. 
F.A.Blake.Hemet  .... 


Uhase  Company,  Riv- 
erside. 


W.  E.  Atwater.  River 
side. 

R.  H.  Howard.  River- 
side. 

E.  L.  Koethen,  River- 
side. 

James  Bovd. Riverside. 


Irrigation. 


Clav  and  sandy  loams. 


Light  granitic    loam 

and  dark  sediment. 

Light  loams 


Citrus      and      small 
fruits  irrigated. 


Cultivation. 


.do 


Two  plo wings  and  twenty- 
five  workings  with  harrow 
and  cultivator. 

do Plow  and  cross  plow  and  three 

or  four  cultivations. 

A.11  fruits  irrigated Two  plowings  and  cultivation 

once  a  month. 

do Five  or  six  cultivations. 


do 

Granitic  loam 


Red  clay  and  sandy 
loams. 

Brown  clay  and  san- 
dy loams. 

Heavy  and  light 
loams. 

Red  clay  and  light 
loams. 


Leland  Lyon,Redlands    Deep,  mellow  choco- 
late loam. 
\Y.    M.    Bristol,     East      Medium    heavy    red 
Highlands.  loam. 


VY.  F.  Grow,  Messina  . . . 
W.  S.  Corwin,  Messina  . 
0.  J.Merryfield.Colton . 


E.  \Yeston,  Blooming- 
ton. 
J.  S.  McCracken,  Rialto 


E.  Rhodes,  Chino 
C.Frankish,  Ontario. 


J.  M.  Hunter,  Bakers- 
field. 
J.  T.  Bearss.  Porterville 

Thomas  Jacob,  Visalia . 

C.J.  Berry,  Yisalia 


C.    J.    Berry,    Lemon 

Cove. 
J.A.Hill,Hanford 


J.  B.  McCormick,Easton 

Misb    L.     H.     Hatch. 
Fresno. 


George    C.    Roeding, 
Fresno. 


R.  E.  Hutchinson. Fow- 
ler. 
W.6.  Uridge.  Fresno. . . 

N.  Mudgett.  Raymond. 


Heavy      and      light 

loams. 
Medium     and    light 

loams. 
Red  and  brown  sandy 

loams. 


Light  loams 

Medium    and    light 

loams. 
Light      and      heavy 

loams. 
Decomposed   granite 

and  clav  loams. 
do 


.do 

.do 

.do 
.do 

.do 

.do 

.do 
.do 

.do 
.do 
.do. 

.do 
.do 
.do 


Red  clay  loam 

Deep  alluvial  sedi- 
ment. 

Alluvial  with  much 
vegetable  matter. 

Deep  loam  with  gran- 
itic sand. 

Sandy  alluvial 

Light    loam,    "white 

ash." 
Light  loam 


....do 

....do 

....do 

Natural  underflow  . . 

....do 

Apricots     and    citrus 

fruits  irrigated. 
All  fruits  irrigated. 

....do 

....do 


Various  light  loam* 


Clay  and  sandy  loams. 

Rich  gravelly  loam. . . 

Black, sandy, and  red 
granitic  loams. 


.do 


.do 
.do 


Underflow  from  hill- 
side seepage. 


.    one  plowingand  about  twelve 

cultivations. 
.    One  or  two  plowings;  one  or 
two  cultivations  in  winter 
to  kill  weeds;  cultivation  af- 
ter each  irrigation. 
.    One  plowing  and  six  or  seven 

cultivations. 
.1  Cultivation  each  month  after 
|  ■    irrigation. 

.  (  me  or  two  plowings  and  cul- 
tivation after  each  irriga- 
tion. 

Two  plowings  and  cultiva- 
tion after  each  rain  or  irri- 
gation. 

Two  plowings  and  fifteen  to 
twenty  cultivations. 

Plow  in  green  crop  in  Febru- 
ary, plow  again  in  April, 
and  cultivate  after  irriga- 
tion each  month. 

Two  plowings  and  cultivation 
twice  a  month. 

Two  plowings  and  eight  cul- 
tivations. 

Plow  twice,  harrow  twice,  cul- 
tivate twice  to  each  irriga- 
tion. 

One  or  two  plowings  and  cul- 
tivation every  month. 

One  plowing  and  frequent 
thorough  cultivation. 

One  plowing  and  six  to  eight 
cultivations. 

Cultivate  thoroughly  once  a 
month. 

Two  plowings.  three  harrow- 
ings.  and  three  cultivations. 

One  plowingand  ten  to  twelve 
cultivations. 

Two  plowings  and  seven  or 
eight  cultivations. 

Cultivation  every  two  weeks 
during  growing  period. 
Do. 

Two  plowings  and  three  cul- 
tivations. 

Two  plowings  and  two  or  three 
cultivations. 

Once  with  double  plow,  twice 
with  single  plow,  twice  with 
harrow,  twice  or  more  with 
cultivator. 

Two  plowings  and  two  culti- 
vations in  spring;  one  culti- 
vation after  each  irrigation 
in  summer:  cultivation  in 
December  after  first  rain  to 
retain  moisture. 

Plow,  harrow,  and  cultivate 
after  each  irrigation. 

Two  plowings  and  four  culti- 
vations. 
Do. 


26 

Summary  showing  cultivation  practice  in  connection  witli  irrigation,  etc. — Continued. 


Name  and  local tty. 


CALIFORNIA — COIlt '  d . 

Interior    valleys   and 
foothills— Continued . 

M.  D.  Atwater.  Merced . 


Mr.  Davis,  Atwater 

A.  J.  Hesse,  Merced 

W.  T.  Kirkman,  Merced 
J.  W.  Violett,  lone 


Paul     Le     Boyd,    Elk 
Grove. 


C.  E.  Mack,  Florin 


W.  Johnston,  Courtland 

E.  A.  Gammon,  Court- 
land. 

G.  K.  Swingle,  Davis- 
ville. 

F.  B.  McKevitt,  Vaca- 
ville. 

E.  R.  Thurber,  Vaea- 
ville. 

G.  W.  Hinclay,  Winters 

F.W.Willis,  Colusa.... 
B.  F.  Walton,  Yuba  City 
G.  M.  Gray,  Chico 


Soil. 


Sandy  loam 

Sandy  soil . . 
Sandy  plain 


Sandy  loam 

Black  and  red  loams. . 

Shallow,        gravelly 
loam. 


Various  loams , 


Sandy  loam 

Deep  sandy  loam 

Alluvial  sandy  loam. . 

Heavy      and      light 

loams. 
Clay  and  sandv  loams. 


Fred  Scharr,  Red  Bluff. 

L.  C.  Nilsson,  Bayles  . . . 

W.  E.  Whitmore,  Whit- 
more. 

Owen    Dailey,   Whit- 
more. 
W.  B.  Gester,  Newcastle 

E.  B.  Beecher,  Auburn. 

J.  E.  Barnes,  lone 


Decomposed 

stone. 
Alluvial 


land 


.do 


Clay  and  sandv  loams. 


Heavy  loam 


Sandy,  gravelly,  and 

clay  loams. 
Heavy,  red  volcanic 

loam     and      light 

loams. 
Red  loam 


T.  J.  Wagoner,    Penn 
Valley. 

Mountain  valleys. 

J.  H.  Stewart,  Alturas . . 
W.  Sharwood,  Soulsby- 

ville. 
J.  M.  Harris,  Miami 


L.E.  Grove,  Miami. 


Red  granitic  loam. 
Heavy  slate  loam  . 
Red  upland  loam. . 


Black  loam,  sandy 
loam,  and  red  hill 
soil. 


Sandy  loam... 
Granitic  loam 


Alluvial    and    hill 
loams. 

Clay  and  sandy  loams . 


F.  Femmons,  Gertrude.    Granitic    and   sandy 
loams. 


Black  leaf  mold  and 

sand. 
( !lay  and  sandy  loams. 

Sandv  loam  ..* 

do 


Irrigation. 


Cultivation. 


Citrus  fruit  and  olives 
irrigated. 

All  fruits  irrigated . . . . 

do 


.do 


When  rainfall  is  short 
All  fruits  irrigated 


Citrus  and  small 
fruits,  also  olives 
and  grapes  on  shal- 
low soils. 

Only  when  rainfall  is 
short. 

do 


....do 

No  irrigation 

....do 

....do 

Winter  irrigation. 


Citrus  and  small  fruits 
only. 

No  irrigation,  but 
would  be  advan- 
tageous in  dry  years. 

No  irrigation 


Irrigation    for   small 

fruits. 
All  fruits  irrigated 


.do 
.do 
.do 
.do 


Grapes  and  berries  . . 


All  fruits  irrigated 
do 


Some  apples  irrigated, 
some  not.   • 

Small  fruits  irrigated. 

Slight  irrigation  just 
before  ripening. 

All  fruits  irrigated  . . . 


Ross  Lewers,  Frank- 
town,  Nev.a 

T.  E.  Jones,  Bishop 

N.  C.  Cooley,  Bishop  . . 

J.  Baxter,  Independ- 
ence. 

aThis  report  is  inserted  here  because  it  comes  from  a  Nevada  point  and  is  related  to  those  that  fol- 
low in  that  part  of  California  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 


.do 
.do 

.do 


One  plowing  and  frequent  cul- 
tivations to  keep  loose  sur- 
face. 

Cultivate  and  cross  cultivate 
after  each  irrigation. 

One  plowing;  three  or  four 
cultivations,  one  after  each 
irrigation. 

Two  plowings  and  four  or  five 
cultivations. 

Two  plowings  and  two  cul- 
tivations. 

Plow  once,  cultivate  twice, 
harrow  three  times,  mash 
clods  once  before  July  and 
then  stop  cultivation. 

For  unirrigated  land  from 
three  to  six  cultivations. 


Two  plowings;  two  cultiva- 
tions; two  harrowings. 

Three  plowings  and  five  culti- 
vations. 

One  plowing;  two  or  four  cul- 
tivations. 

One  plowing  and  at  least 
twelve  cultivations. 

One  plowing  and  continual 
cultivation  until  August  1. 

Plow  once;  more  cultivation 
and  clodmashing  the  better. 

Two  plowings  and  about 
eight  cultivations. 

Two  plowings;  cultivation 
each  month  until  August. 

One  plowing  and  two  to  six 
cultivations. 

One  plowing  and  cultivation 
to  keep  loose  surface. 

Cultivate  twice  a  month,  May 
to  August. 

Three  to  six  plowings,  and  cul- 
tivation after  irrigation. 

Two  to  three  cultivations. 

Two  or  four  plowings  and  two 

or  ten  cultivations. 
One  plowing  and  four  to  six 

cultivations. 
Two    plowings   and    four   to 

eight  cultivations. 
Four    to  five  workings,  with 

shovel  plow  and  cultivator. 


Three  cultivations. 

Trees  grown  in  irrigated 
clover. 

One  or  two  plowings;  harrow 
or  cultivate  as  often  as 
weeds  grow. 

Two  plowings  and  two  sum- 
mer cultivations. 

Winter  and  spring  plowing; 
four  to  six  summer  cultiva- 
tions. 

Young  trees  with  hoed  crops; 
old  trees  in  grass. 

Seven  or  eight  cultivations. 
About  three  cultivations. 


27 


Summary  showing  cultivation  practice  in  connection  with  irrigation,  etc. — Continued. 


Name  and  locality. 


CALIFORNIA— Cont'd. 

Mountain  valleys— Con- 
tinued. 

*'.  A.Walter,Independ- 

ence. 
\V.  Chappelow,  Llano. . 

A.  B.  Eels,  West  Palm- 
dale. 

O.    L.    Livesay,    Fair- 
mont.      • 


Soil. 


Sandy  and   gravelly 

loams. 
Sandv  


Granitic  loams 


T.O.Bailey,  Nellie 

Chester  Gunn,  Julian. . 

ARIZONA. 

James  Page.  Verde 


J.K.  Hall.AguaFria... 
C.  T.  Adams,  Phoenix. . 


.do 


.do 


Light    and     heavy 
loams. 


Black  clay  loam  and 
sandy  or  gravelly 
loams. 

Rich  alluvial 

Light  loams  and 
heavy  clay  loams. 


O.  Allen,  Phoenix Desert  loam 


G.  H.  Clayson,  Phoenix    Sandy,  gravelly,  and 
clay  loams. 


E.  X.  Wilson,  Phoenix 
C.  Williams,  Phoenix  . 


Irrigation. 


Cultivation. 


Seepage  underflow 
from  adjacent 
mountains. 

To  start  young  trees. . 


No  irrigation 


.do 


do 


One  plowing;  two  cultiva- 
tions. 

One  plowing;  cultivation 
after  each  irrigation. 

One  plowing;  two  to  three 
cultivations. 

Plow  once,  harrow  twice, 
chisel-cultivator  once,  weed- 
cutter  two  to  four  times. 

One  plowing  and  two  to  three 
cultivations. 

One  or  two  plowings  and  fre- 
quent cultivation  until  fall. 


Fall  and  spring  plowing, 
using  cultivator  and  harrow 
for  eight  months  after  each 
irrigation. 

PIoav  in  winter;  mow  weeds 
several  times  in  summer, 
leaving  them  on  the  ground. 

Clean  cultivation  with  eight 
or  ten  workings,  but  clean 
cultivation  is  killing  the 
trees. 

Hoe  around  trees  constantly; 
clean  culture  of  open  spaces 
is  being  abandoned,  as  it 
wears  out  the  soil. 


GENERALIZATIONS   FROM    SUMMARY. 

The  foregoing  account  of  actual  practice  of  fruit  growers  through- 
out the  whole  area  of  the  Pacilic  States  affords  opportunity  for  long 
stud}T,  but  only  a  few  deductions  can  be  made  at  this  time.  It  will 
serve  as  a  guide  to  practice,  and  by  comparisons  of  methods  and  fre- 
quency of  cultivation  it  will  yield  many  suggestions  of  practical  value 
to  the  grower.  A  broad  view  of  the  prevailing  practice  justifies  the 
following  generalizations: 

First.  Clean  summer  tillage  is  almost  a  universal  practice  in  the 
fruit  regions  of  the  Pacific  coast.  If  space  had  permitted  the  intro- 
duction of  reports  from  the  more  humid  region  of  the  coast,  like  those 
given  above,  it  would  have  appeared  that  a  few  growers  in  regions  of 
heaviest  rainfall  approve  the  growth  of  cover  crops,  like  clover,  after 
the  trees  reach  bearing  age,  and  also  that  others  employ  scant  summer 
cultivation,  or  cultivation  for  a  short  period  only.  The  idea  of  these 
growers  is  that  such  practices  relieve  the  soil  of  excessive  moisture, 
either  by  the  growth  of  the  cover  crop  or  by  facilitating  surface  evap- 
oration, and  so  prevent  the  tree  from  being  stimulated  to  too  large 
wood  growth,  or  maintaining  growth  so  late  in  the  season  as  to  enter 


28 

the  frost  period  in  too  active  a  condition  and  with  new  wood  not  prop- 
erly matured.  Quite  in  contrast  with  this  is  the  practice,  which  is 
gaining  ground  in  the  hottest  parts  of  the  irrigated  region,  of  growing 
alfalfa  as  a  cover  crop  for  the  purpose  of  shading  the  soil  and  thus 
reducing  soil  temperature  and,  perhaps,  of  avoiding  the  ill  effects  of 
the  reflection  of  burning  sun  heat  from  a  smooth  surface  of  light- 
colored  soil,  or  the  ill  effect  of  "burning  out  of  humus"  by-  clean 
summer  culture.  In  such  cases  more  irrigation  is  needed  to  supply 
enough  water  for  the  growth  of  both  trees  and  cover  crop.  But  at 
present  these  exceptions  are  of  rare  occurrence. 

Second.  The  adoption  of  a  policy  of  clean  cultivation  in  the  dry 
season  is  not  conditioned  upon  the  amount  of  moisture  available  either 
by  rainfall  or  irrigation.  The  table  shows  that  it  is  pursued  both 
where  irrigation  is  practiced  and  where  it  is  not,  and  also  where  the 
rainfall  is  greatest  and  where  it  is  least.  It  prevails  in  the  humid 
region  where  rainfall  may  rise  to  60  inches  or  more  and  in  the  arid 
region  where  it  may  not  exceed  one-tenth  as  much.  As  a  matter. of 
fact,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  a  good  fruit  soil  so  deep  and  reten- 
tive that  it  can  retain  enough  even  of  a  veiy  heavy  rainfall  to  effect 
good  tree  growth  and  fruit  bearing  if  it  is  forced  to  sustain  the  loss 
by  evaporation  from  a  compact  surface  during  the  long  dry  season 
following.  There  may  be,  it  is  true,  soils  weak  in  capillarity,  in  which 
water  can  not  rise  from  a  great  depth  and  in  which  deep  rooting 
plants  may  find  ample  water  in  the  subsoil,  providing  it  is  held  there 
by  impervious  underlying  strata.  There  are  man}-  more  instances 
where  loss  by  natural  drainage  is  added  to  loss  by  evaporation.  But, 
disregarding  exceptions,  the  loss  of  moisture  by  both  drainage  and  evap- 
oration during  the  dry  season  is  so  great  that  the  soil  to  a  depth  of 
several  feet  loses  practically  all  the  water  which  is  available  for  plant 
growth,  and  the  trees  fail  or  become  unprofitable.  Loss  by  drainage 
can  not,  practically,  be  prevented,  but  loss  by  evaporation  can  be  so 
reduced  that  trees  and  vines  will  be  adequately  supplied  in  spite  of 
the  loss  by  drainage.  Because,  therefore,  the  soil  can  not  retain 
enough  water  in  its  natural  state,  no  matter  how  much  it  may  receive, 
clean  summer  cultivation,  involving  quite  complete  and  more  or  less 
frequent  stirring  of  the  surface  to  the  depth  of  4  to  6  inches,  is 
the  almost  universal  practice,  irrespective  of  local  rainfall  or  of 
irrigation. 

Third.  The  prevailing  motive,  then,  for  cultivation  in  the  dry-summer 
region  is  moisture  retention.  In  this  respect  good  surface  tilth  is  so 
effective  that,  though  enough  moisture  can  not  be  retained  without  it, 
so  much  can  be  retained  with  it  that,  even  where  irrigation  or  rainfall 
is  moderate  in  amount,  it  may  serve  all  purposes  of  the  tree  or  vine. 
Thus  cultivation  enters  into  the  fruit-growers'  practice  in  the  region 
under  consideration,  not  to  make  large  rainfall  effective,  as  it  does  in 


29 

some  parts  of  the  region,  but  to  make  moderate  rainfall  effective,  or 
to  make  small  irrigation  effective,  by  increasing  the  duty  of  water 
which  is  applied.  It  becomes  not  only  a  ruling  consideration  in  the 
effectiveness  of  a  certain  amount  of  rainfall,  as  has  already  been  sug- 
gested in  another  connection,  but  it  also  determines*  the  success  of 
irrigation  and  the  amount  of  water  required;  for,  although  it  was  an 
early  and  rude  practice  to  rehT  upon  irrigation  to  support  uncultivated 
fruit  trees  and  to  irrigate  more  and  more  frequently  as  the  ground 
became  harder  from  its  use,  this  policy  has  now  no  standing  in  com- 
mercial fruit  growing.  Not  only  was  it  wasteful  of  water,  but  it  was 
otherwise  detrimental  to  the  thrift  of  trees. 

Fourth.  Thorough  cultivation,  both  in  winter  and  summer,  has 
other  very  important  ends  in  view.  It  opens  the  soil  and  promotes 
aeration;  it  encourages  deeper  rooting  and  thus  encourages  the  tree  to 
take  possession  of  a  greater  soil  mass  both  for  moisture  and  other 
plant  food.  It  is  part  of  a  very  valuable  policy  of  increasing  humus 
by  plowing  under  the  natural  growth  of  weeds  or  specially  sown  leg- 
umes. This  increases  the  amount  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  adds 
new  plant  food,  promotes  the  friabilit}T  of  heavy  soils  and  the  reten- 
tiveness  of  light  soils,  and  is  otherwise  valuable.  Green  manuring  in 
some  parts  of  the  region  is  done  by  plowing  in  winter  growths  in  the 
spring.  In  the  localities  where  summer  growth  of  alfalfa  as  a  soil 
cover  is  advocated  as  a  substitute  for  cultivation,  cutting  the  crop 
without  removing  it,  but  allowing  it  to  disintegrate  in  place,  is  held 
by  some  growers  to  be  additional  protection  to  the  soil  surface  and 
some  addition  to  its  supply  of  plant  food. 

Fifth.  The  exact  methods  by  which  desirable  conditions  of  tilth  are 
to  be  secured  are  in  part  dependent  upon  the  local  soil  and  climate  and 
in  part  upon  the  individual  conceptions  of  growers.  It  will  not  be 
possible  in  this  connection  to  undertake  an  elaborate  analysis  of  the 
methods  reported  in  the  preceding  table,  nor  their  relations  to  attend- 
ant circumstances  of  rainfall,  soil,  and  irrigation  practice.  It  will 
appear,  however,  that  very  diligent  cultivation  is  practiced  both  by 
those  who  rely  upon  local  rainfall  and  by  those  who  irrigate.  Irriga- 
tors cultivate  most  frequently,  which  is  not,  however,  evidence  that 
their  methods  are  better  than  those  of  nonirrigators.  Frequency  of 
irrigation  is  in  itself  not  desirable  if  it  can  be  avoided,  as  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  another  connection.  Frequency  of  cultivation  with  irriga- 
tion simply  indicates  that  so  often  as  the  soil  is  thrown  out  of  good 
condition  for  moisture  retention,  so  often  must  such  good  condition  be 
restored.  If  it  should  be  concluded  from  the  wide  collection  of  data 
that  the  prevailing  practice  is  in  the  line  of  more  frequent  working  of 
the  soil  than  some  employ,  the  lesson  would  be  a  valuable  one.  There 
enters  here,  however,  the  proper  study  of  the  soil  with  which  each 
grower  has  to  deal,  the  behavior  of  his  trees,  and  the  quality  of  his  fruit 


30 

under  his  present  methods,  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  experience  on 
his  part  to  determine  whether  he  has  not  something  to  learn  from  the 
example  of  the  more  diligent  soil  workers  whose  practice  is  outlined 
in  the  table. 

Sixth.  To  one  who  has  observed  the  evolution  of  culture  methods 
on  the  Pacific  coast  for  the  last  twenty-five  }Tears,  the  data  included  in 
the  preceding  table  are  particularly  interesting  as  showing  the  increas- 
ing popularity  of  the  plow  in  orchard  and  vineyard  work.  There  was 
a  time  when  on  our  lighter  loams  various  styles  of  cultivators  and 
harrows  seemed  likely  to  rule  out  the  plow.  Where  rainfall  is  small 
these  tools  worked  so  well  both  winter  and  summer  that  it  seemed  a 
good  and  economical  policy  to  keep  the  ground  always  clean  of  weeds 
and  with  a  finely  pulverized  surface.  Where  the  soil  was  more  reten- 
tive and  the  rainfall  heavier,  the  land  was  frequently  out  of  condition 
for  winter  working,  the  weeds  and  native  clovers  grew  freely,  and  the 
plow  always  seemed  indispensable  to  cover  in  the  green  stuff  and  break 
up  the  compacted  surface.  At  the  present  time,  as  the  foregoing  data 
show,  the  plow  has  regained  its  standing  as  the  proper  basis  for  satis- 
factory summer  pulverization.  This  has  come  from  the  very  wide 
observation  that  continued  shallow  work  with  the  cultivator  causes 
a  hardpan  at  whatever  depth  the  teeth  cease  their  cutting,  and  this  hard- 
pan  in  many  soils  even  of  rather  coarse  nature  ma}T  become  so  cemented 
that  the  penetration  of  moisture  is  arrested  and  the  subsoil  becomes  too 
dry  for  the  best  root  growth,  although  the  surface  la}-er  may  be  fre- 
quently saturated  by  rain  or  irrigation.  This  condition  is  aggravated 
by  irrigation,  but  may  be  corrected  by  better  methods  in  the  applica- 
tion of  irrigation  water,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  proper  connection 
later.  A  continuous  rain  may  partially  overcome  it.  The  usefulness 
of  the  plow  in  deeper  disintegration,  in  opening  the  soil  to  deep  recep- 
tion of  water  and  in  laying  a  foundation  of  good  tilth  by  its  deeper 
reach  and  by  its  superior  breaking  action,  is  now  being  widely  recog- 
nized. There  are  now  very  few  cases  in  which  the  plow  is  not  used 
once  in  the  year,  and  in  many  cases  two  plowings  are  held  to  be 
desirable.  Deep  plowing  of  a  central  strip  between  the  rows  and 
shallower  plowing  nearer  the  trees  or  vines  is  a  common  practice.  The 
table  shows  that  some  growers  make  much  freer  use  of  the  plow.  It 
is  probabl}7  true  that  in  some  parts  of  the  coast  the  modern  cultivators 
are  not  yet  well  known  and  their  economy  recognized.  The  turning 
of  the  soil  in  the  dry  season  is  accompanied  by  a  loss  of  moisture, 
which  is  unnecessary  and  can  be  avoided  by  the  newer  implements 
which  stir  deeply  and  thoroughly  without  turning. 


31 

INTERCULTURE  IN  ORCHARD  AND  VINEYARD. 

Closely  related  to  cultivation  is  the  practice  of  intercropping,  and 
it  is  bo  important  that  special  inquiry  was  made  to  ascertain  the  pres- 
ent practice  and  general  attitude  of  the  growers  toward  it.  The  first 
and  most  wide-reaching  conclusion  is  that  the  policy  of  intercropping 
for  any  purpose  whatever  is  not  in  favor  with  two-thirds  of  the  grow- 
ers. Out  of  '2S6  replies  to  questions  on  this  subject  received  from  all 
the  districts  of  the  coast,  both  in  humid  and  arid  sections.  L87  declared 
against  intercropping,  while  99  favored  it.  In  many  cases,  however, 
such  favor  was  provisional  and  restricted.  The  matter  is  of  such 
importance  in  connection  with  irrigation  practice  that  the  following 
table  has  been  prepared  to  show  the  practice  of  growers  who  favor 
intercropping  throughout  the  territory  covered  by  this  report: 

Summary  showing  irUercuUure  in  orchard  and  vineyard. 


Name  and  locality. 


Irrigation. 


Intercropping. 


H.  A.  Russell.  Kendrick Little  or  no  irri-  Small  navy  beans:  average,  1.000  pounds  to  the  acre. 

gation. 

E.  H.  Libbv,  Lewiston Irrigated Berries  and  root  crops  until  trees  are  4  or  5  Years 

old. 

W.  W.  Wells.  New  Plymouth do Nothing,  but  others  grow  berries  and  root  crops. 

W.  G.  Whitney,  Payette do Small  fruits  during  first  3  or  4  years. 

A.  P.  Hartley.  Caldwell do Better  nothing,  but  some  grow  corn  2  years. 

Geo.  Little.  Caldwell do Berries  and  currants  only. 

Robt.  Milliken.  Boise do Hoed  crops  first  3  years.  * 

A.  McPherson.  Boi-e do Corn  and  vegetables  first  3  years. 

W.  A.  Sample,  Blackfoot do Potatoes  and  berries. 

NEVADA. 

Ross  Lewers.  Franklin Irrigated Hoed  crops  for  young  trees:  old  trees  in  gra— . 

WASHINGTON. 

Fred  Eichholtz,  Edison No  irrigation Small  fruits  in  young  orchard:  after  8  years  of  age, 

*  red  clover. 

John.  A.  Stewart.  Christopher do Vegetables  and  small  fruits  until  8  years  old:  then 

clover  or  grass. 

J.  H.  Kinney,  Mount  Vern<  m do Potatoes.  5  or  6  year-:  after  that,  nothing. 

C.  Robinson,  Chelan do Corn  and  potato  >es.  3  years:  after  that,  nothing. 

L.  H.  Spader.  Chelan do Corn.  20  to  40  bushels  per  acre. 

J.  W.  Himes.  Elma do Hoed  crops  until  trees  bear:  nothing  afterwards. 

A.  L.  Aabling.  Seattle do Vegetable.-.  4  to  .=>  feet  each  side  of  the  trees. 

A.  M.  Ferrell,  Redmond do Vegetables,  first  5  or  ti  years:  afterwards,  field  peas 

and  red  clover,  alternate  y- 

H.  C.  Cook,  White  Salmon do Corn  for  first  8  years:  afterwards,  nothing. 

F.  A.  English.  Farmington do Vegetables  until  trees  come  into  bearing. 

Geo.  Ruedy.  Colfax do Any  hoed  crops  while  trees  are  young. 

E.  P.  Gilbert.  Spokane d<> Any  hoed  crops. 

D.  W.  Bridgraan.  Latah do Beans,  peas,  squashes,  melons,  carrots,  and  potatoes. 

Jason  Whinney.  Spokane do Vegetables  or  corn  while  trees  are  small. 

F.  E.  Thompson.  Parker Irrigated Fir-t  2  year-,  potatoes;  afterwards,  clov. 

A.E.  Koehler.  Wenatchee do Corn  and  potatoes.  4  or  5  years. 

J.  N.  James.  Waitsburg do Berries  and  vegetables. 


Henry  E.  Dosch,  Hillsdale  . . .    No  irrigation 


Cherries  and  pears,  possibly  apples,  should  be  in 

sod  when  in  full  bearing. 
Corn,  potatoes,  and  nursery  stock,  first  4  or  5  years. 


A.  Holaday.  Scappoose <lo 

J.  S.  Brooks.  Lafayette do Potatoes,  corn,  etc.,  first  3  or  4  y 

H.  Finley,  Monroe do Potatoes,  first  2  years. 

L.  T.  Reynolds,  Salem do Beans,  corn,  carrots,  potatoes,  etc..  while  trees  are 

young. 
Nothing,  except  possibly  vegetables.     Some  grow 

berries,  but  I  don't  approve  it. 
Ground  cultivated  both  ways  for  4  years 
Root  crops  and  corn:  only  legumes  to  plow  under. 
Crops  until  trees  are  3  years  old. 


Chas.  L.  Dailey,  Salem do 

B.Cunningham.  Liberty do 

J.  J.  Harden.  Stavton  do 

-  ewart,  Medtord do 


32 


Summary  showing  intercuUuri  in  orchard  and  vineyard — Continued. 


Name  and  locality. 


Irrigation. 


Intercropping. 


Oregon— continued. 
H.  W.  Oliver.  Suniinerville. . . 


No  irrigation 

Irrigated 

do 


S.A.Miller.  Milton  .. 
Thos.  Spence.  Milton 

CALIFORNIA. 


Mrs.   Victor    Hope,   Blocks-     No  irrigation 
burg. 

W.  H.  Bailar.  Fortuna do 

G.  W.  Brant.  Fish  Rock do 


Com,  beans,  and  potatoes  until  trees  shade  too 

much. 
Strawberries,  first  3  years. 
Crops  until  trees  are  8  years  old. 


Corn  is  grown  among  young  trees. 


E.  F.  Cook.  Napa do 

W.  H.  Hilton,  Glenellen do 

Robert  Hall.  Sonoma do 

B.  H.  Upham,  Martinez do 

F.  Barbour,  Clayton do 

E.  M.  Ehrhom,  San  Jose do 


A.  Block,  Santa  Clara Irrigated 

E.  Berwick,  Monterey do  . . . 


R.  W.  Eaton,  Watsonville No  irrigate  m 

J.  A.  McCune,  Watsonville do 

James  Waters.  Watsonville do 


J.  A.  Girard,  Cayucos do 

Fred  Seharr,  Redbluff do 

Wm.  Johnston,  Courtland do 

Paul  Le  Boyd,  Elkgrove Irrigated 

J.  \Y.  Yiolett,  lone ,  No  irrigation. 

J.  E.  Barnes,  lone :  Irrigated 

A.  J.  Hesse,  Mercea do 


Roeding,  Fresno do 

W.  G.  Fridge,  Fresno do 


J.S.  MeCormick, Eaton do 

J.T.  Bearss,  Porterville do 

W.  G.  Gester,  Newcastle do 

Nelson  Mudgett, Raymond..    Subirrigated. 

J.  H.  Stewart,  Alturas Irrigated 


W.  E.  Whitmore,  Whitmore do 

Owen  Dailey,  Whitmore do 

H.  C.  Fuchs,  Grass  Valley do 

Frank  Femmons,  Gertrude do 

W.  Sharwood,  Soulsbyville do 

L.  E.  Grove.  Miami do 

John  Baxter,  Independence do 

N.  0.  Cooley,  Bishop do 

Ell  wood  Cooper.  Santa  Bar-  I  No  irrigation 
bara. 

J.  V.  Alvord ,  El  Rio Irrigated  .... 

H.  J.Dennison,Nordhoff No  irrigation 

A.  S.  Thatcher,  Nordhoff Irrigated  .... 

Frank  Dunn,  Fillmore do 

0.  E.  Roberts,  Colegrove do 

L.  T.  Garnsey,  San  Fernando. do 


Strawberries,  carrots,  potatoes. 

Vegetables  in  summer;  in  winter  grass  to  plow 
under 

Root  crops. 

Corn. 

We  grow  corn  when  starting  young  orchard. 

Corn  for  fodder  while  trees  are  young. 

Corn  in  wet  years  to  protect*  trees  from  grass- 
hoppers. 

Pumpkins,  carrots,  and  corn  only  when  trees  are 
young. 

Peas  and  carrots  for  farm  use  only. 

Berries,  corn,  potatoes,  beans,  squashes,  and  man- 
gels. 

Corn,  potatoes,  and  beans  from  1  to  5  years. 

Corn  2  years. 

Berries  when  trees  are  young:  better  nothing  after 
3  years. 

Corn  or  hoed  crops,  but  better  nothing. 

Sorghum  while  trees  are  young. 

Watermelons,  cantaloupes,  squashes,  etc. 

Corn  foddei  if  trees  are  far  apart. 

Potatoes,  pumpkins,  and  peas-. 

Pumpkins  and  root  crops  when  young. 

Vegetables;  but  danger  of  giving  trees  too  much 
water. 

Pumpkins  until  trees  come  into  bearing. 

Only  low-growing  vegetables  in  center  of  wide 
rows. 

Pumpkins  and  watermelons  while  trees  are  small. 

Sorghum  while  trees  are  young. 

Small  fruits  for  a  year  or  two  at  most. 

Watermelons. 

Vegetables  when  trees  are  voung;  afterwards 
alfalfa. 

Beans;  usually  red  clover  is  desirable. 

Vegetables  first  3  or  I  years. 

Berries  while  trees  are  small. 

Squashes  and  other  vines  while  trees  are  young. 

Clover  and  potatoes  in  rotation. 

Only  green  crops  to  plow  under. 

Corn  and  all  kinds  of  berries  while  trees  are  young. 

Berries  and  currants. 

Beans  are  grown,  but  inadvisable. 

Beans  when  trees  are  small:  afterwards  nothing. 

Squashes  to  2  or  3  years  old. 

With  enough  water  many  things  would  pay. 

Beans,  but  better  with  nothing. 

Tomatoes  and  beans  during  the  winter. 

Vegetables  until  trees  are  4  years  old. 


F.  E.  Grav,  Alhambra 

....do 

Small  fruits. 

Subirrigated 

Irrigated 

do 

do 

Beans  or  y>eanuts. 

R.  H.  Howard,  Riverside 

James  Boyd,  Riverside 

Melons  until  trees  are  4  years  old. 
Pumpkins,  etc. .only  when  trees  are  small. 
Vegetables  in  a  small  way. 
Green  manure  plants  only. 
Corn,  potatoes,  cabbage,  and  turnips. 
Beets,  corn,  etc.,  up  to  sixth  year. 
Potatoes,  beans,  etc. 
Strawberries  sometimes  profitable. 

Judson  Williams,  Fallbrook. 
T.  0.  Bailey,  Nellie  .. 

do 

No  irrigation 

Irrigated 

do 

....do 

Jobes  Brothers,  Escondido. . . 

L.  E.  Kent,  Powav 

G.  P.  Hall,  San  Diego 

J.  P.  Jones,  Linda  Vista  . . . 

....do 

Vegetables  and  strawberries  in  some  cases. 

ARIZONA. 

James  Page,  Verde  Valley. . . 
Orlando  Allen,  Phoenix  ." 

do 

Grow  clover  for  hav. 

.  .do.. 

Alfalfa  mowed  and  left  on  the  ground. 

W.  Wilson.  Phoenix 

do 

strawberries  do  fairlv  well. 

do 

Beans  and  potatoes. 

do 

Beans  among  voung  trees  with  profit. 

33 

The  practice  of  intercropping,  either  for  the  direct  value  of  the 
crop,  or  for  the  indirect  advantage  of  it  as  a  green  manure,  or  for  a 
ground  cover,  is  conditioned  upon  the  amount  of  water  available. 
either  by  irrigation  or  rainfall,  and  upon  the  character  of  the  soil. 

Where  the  soil  is  deep  and  retentive  and  the  rainfall  large,  inter- 
crops may  be  admissible,  so  far  as  moisture  is  concerned,  because 
there  maybe  enough  present  for  both  the  trees  or  vines  and  the  inter- 
crop, but  they  may  be  undesirable  because  of  exhaustion  of  fertility 
which  should  be  conserved  for  the  later  use  of  the  fruit  plants.  It  is 
a  prerequisite,  therefore,  to  intercropping  that  the  soil  have  not  only 
surplus  moisture  but  surplus  fertility  which  can  perhaps  be  drawn 
upon  for  present  use  and  restored  later  as  it  may  be  needed.  Unless 
such  surpluses  are  available,  the  whole  tenancy  of  the  ground  should 
be  awarded  to  the  trees  and  vines,  unless  intercropping  be  resorted  to 
for  the  purposes  of  using  abundant  moisture  in  the  growth  of  legumes 
which  may  be  plowed  in  for  the  future  benefit  of  the  main  crop.  But 
there  are  locations  where  great  depth  and  fertility  and  ample  rainfall 
coincide,  and  in  a  few  such  places  orchard  trees  are  still  vigorous  and 
profitable,  although  for  twenty  years  or  more  intercrops  of  small 
fruits  and  field  vegetables  have  been  continuously  grown. 

Intercropping  with  irrigation  is  subject  to  the  same  conditions  in 
respect  to  ample  water  supply.  When  water  is  available  it  can  be 
applied  as  needed  and  long  retention  in  the  soil  is  not  essential,  as  is 
the  case  with  rainfall.  For  this  reason  intercrops  are  more  popular 
in  irrigated  regions  than  elsewhere  and  can  be  undertaken  on  shal- 
lower and  less  retentive  soils.  The  question  of  fertility  is.  however, 
also  important,  but  most  of  the  soils  of  the  arid  region  which  are 
chosen  for  fruit  are  very  rich.  Because  they  have  not  been  leached 
by  excessive  rainfall  they  retain  relatively  larger  supplies  of  plant 
food  than  the  soils  of  the  humid  region,  and  the  planter  is  often  much 
aided  in  the  problem  of  maintenance  while  his  fruit  trees  are  coming 
to  bearing  age  by  turning  a  part  of  the  strength  of  his  soil  into  -ale- 
able  produce. 

The  resort  to  cover  crops  as  a  substitute  for  clean  cultivation  is 
coming  into  greater  prominence  in  irrigated  districts.  In  western 
Oregon  and  Washington,  where  rainfall  is  very  heavy,  the  growing 
of  clover  in  old  orchards  has  been  long  practiced,  as  has  already  been 
stated  in  another  connection.  The  use  of  cover  crops  to  protect  the 
soil  in  the  hotter  irrigated  regions  has  also  been  mentioned  and  its 
claims  to  advantage  stated.  The  foregoing  table  gives  data  on  these 
points.  The  practices  are  commendable  under  the  conditions  cited  in 
each  case  and  are  likely  to  increase  in  popularity.  The  cover  crop 
should  be  a  legume  if  possible,  and  owing  to  degrees  of  hardiness 
different  plants  may  be  chosen  for  summer  and  winter  growth.  There 
are  objections  to  perennial  legumes,  because  their  use  prevents  culti- 
lo«  >13 — No.  108— <  >2 3 


34 

ration  and  aeration  of  the  soil,  and  because  the  undisturbed  soil  favors 
the  increase  of  injurious  insects  and  rodents.  These  dangers  are, 
however,  reduced  by  having  irrigation  arrangements  by  which  the 
water  may  be  held  upon  the  ground  for  a  length  of  time  in  winter. 
A  newer  practice  is  the  use  of  legumes,  like  peas,  lupines,  melilot,  etc., 
which  grow  during  the  winters,  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  coast 
region  at  least,  to  be  plowed  under  in  spring,  and,  after  this  plowing, 
sowing  summer  legumes,  like  cowpeas,  crimson  clover,  etc.,  to  be 
turned  under  in  the  fall.  This  practice  is  rather  expensive  in  seed, 
work,  and  water,  perhaps,  but  where  water  is  abundant  and  cheap, 
it  is  questionable  whether  the  salutary  effects  of  soil  protection  and 
the  value  of  the  plant  food  added  to  the  soil  can  be  secured  so  cheaply 
in  any  other  way.  At  present,  as  shown  in  the  table,  some  growers 
cling  to  the  free  use  of  water  and  the  growth  of  alfalfa  as  a  good 
practice  in  hot,  dry  regions. 

The  table  gives  a  long  list  of  plants  as  commended  for  growth  among 
fruit  trees.  So  great  is  the  variety  that  no  clear  deductions  can  be 
made  as  to  the  nature  of  the  plants  to  be  chosen.  It  seems  to  depend 
largely  upon  the  use  or  market  which  the  grower  has  for  them.  Obvi- 
ously, however,  it  should  be  a  plant  which  admits  of  good  summer 
cultivation,  unless  the  land  is  to  be  laid  down  in  clover  and  water 
freely  used.  In  most  cases  the  crop  must  be  grown  in  rows  or  hills, 
and  tiie  soil  be  frequently  and  thoroughly  worked  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion. Where  full  cultivation  is  not  provided  for,  the  leafy  vines  of 
the  squash  family  are  thought  to  be  serviceable  in  soil  shading,  and 
this  class  of  plants  is  particularly  popular  in  the  California  irrigated 
districts. 

IRRIGATION    SEASON    AND    FREQUENCY    OF    APPLICATION    AND 
AMOUNTS  OF  WATER  USED. 

After  conservation  by  cultivation  and  other  schemes  devised  for  the 
economical  use  of  water,  the  next  question  is  as  to  the  irrigating  season, 
the f  requency  of  application  desirable,  and  the  amounts  of  water  actually 
used.  Along  these  lines  very  careful  inquiry  has  been  made  to  ascer- 
tain the  views  and  practices  of  growers,  and  tabulations  of  results  will 
be  given  below.  That  growers  are  seriously  in  error  as  to  the  amounts 
of  water  they  use;  that  the}^  often  use  more  than  they  think;  that  they 
sometimes  use  more  than  the}T  need,  and  that  they  do  not  always  secure 
the  highest  duty  of  which  the  water  is  capable  are  all  strong  proba- 
bilities. The  demonstration  must  come  from  more  comprehensive  and 
accurate  studies  than  have  vet  been  made,  although  the  publication  of 
such  data  as  are  now  available  affords  opportunit}^  to  study  the  question 
from  accurate  measurement  of  Avater  and  crops  produced.'"1  The  fur- 
ther pursuit  of  the  study  will  }rield  results  of  incalculable  value.  It  is 
still,  however,  important  to  have  the  wide  collation  of  growers'  con- 

:i  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Buls.  86  and  104. 


35 


ceptions  of  amounts  of  water  used,  which  this  special  inquiry  yields. 
Comparison  of  these  with  the  results  of  measurement  will  be  an  inter- 
esting effort  of  the  future. 

In  preparing  the  following  table  most  careful  effort  has  been  made 
to  fairly  translate  the  various  estimates  which  individual  growers 
submitted  to  a  uniform  standard  of  acre-inches.  The  results  both  in 
estimate  and  calculations  are  as  accurate  as  effort  and  inquiry,  some- 
times several  times  repeated,  can  make  them: 

Summary  showing  irrigation  season  and  frequency  of  application  and  amount*  of  water 
used  for  deciduous  fruits  on  the  Pacific  coast. 


Region. 

Rain- 
fall 

Irrigation  season. 

Number 
of  irriga- 
tions. 

Depth  of 

each  irri- 
gation. 

Total 

depth  for 

season. 

IDAHO. 

Inches. 

14-20 

July  to  Sept.  15 

May  to  August 

do 

3-5 

4 

3-4 

3-5 

4 

4 

4-6 

3-6 

2-4 

4 

2-6 

Inches. 

1.5-2 

12 

3 

Inches. 

4.  5  10 

Weiser  Vallev 

Do                                       

4s 

y  i° 

May  to  Aug.  15 

36 

Do 

■"§"" 

14  '>4 

May  to  August 

April  to  August 

May  to  August 

June  to  September  . . . 

June  to  August 

June  to  August  and 
in  October. 

12 

Do 

8-12 

Do . . .                      

30 

WASHINGTON. 

2 
2 

4  8 

3-6 

8 

<>4 

5  5 

Touchet  

17 

45 

40 

do 

3 

11 

3-4 

2-3 

1 

lor  2 

1 

12 

10 

10 

18 

5 

3-4 

8-10 

2 

2 

1-3 

2 

1-3 

1 

•       3 

1 

3 

1-4 

3-4 

2-4 

3-4 

1 

2 

2-4 

1 

2 

5 

2 

1 

1 

2-3 

3 

1 

2-3 

2 

3 

1  or  2 

2 

■_-  or  3 

CALIFORNIA   (COUNTIES). 

June  to  August 

do 

1.5 

2 

6 
12 
12 

2.5 

1 

2 

1.25 

1 

1 

1.25 

1.25 
6-8 

6 

3-12 

3-4 

3 
12 

4 
8-10 

4 

i 
2-3 
3-6 

2.5 
12 

6 

4 

6 

4 

1.5 

1.5 
6-9 

6 

2 

2.75 
12 

2 

4 

4 

4 

3 

4 

17.5 

Do. 

8 

Butte 

12  18 

Butte 

28 
12 
40 
25-35 
25-35 
25-35 
20 
18 
18 
18 
20 
20 
20 
20 
16 
20 
15 
12 
20 
13 
12 
10 
8 
8 
8 

February 

12 

Winter 

12  24 

2  5 

Placer 

Do 

Do 

June  to  October 

May  to  October 

May  to  September 

June  to  September  . . . 

June  to  October 

July  to  September 

June  to  August 

March  and  May 

February  and  May 

March  to  June 

12 
22 
12.  5 

18 

Do 

5 

Do 

3  25-5 

Do 

lO-l'*  5 

12  16 

Do  

12 

Do 

9  12 

Do 

6-8 

Do 

March  to  June 

3  9 

Do 

12 

Do 

July  to  August 

Winter 

12 

Do 

8-10 

Do 

January  to  July 

Summer 

12 

4  16 

Merced 

6  12 

Do 

do 

12  24 

Fresno 

do 

7  5-10 

Do 

12 

Do 

March  to  July 

12 

8  16 

Tulare... 

March  to  May 

March  to  June 

April  to  August 

March  and  May 

March  or  April* 

July  .. 

6 

Kern 

4 
3.5 

8 

Invo 

3 

Los  Angeles 

18 
20 
12 

6-9 

Do 

6 

Do 

June  to  November 

June  to  October 

March  or  April 

4  6 

Do... 

8  ''5 

Orange 

15 
12 

12 

Do 

4-6 

Do 

do 

8 

Do 

January.  March,  June 

12 

Do 

4  8 

Do 

Summer 

6 

Do 

do 

8-12 

36 


Summary  showing  irrigation  season,  etc — Continued. 


Region. 

Rain- 
fall. 

Irrigation  season. 

Number 
of  irriga- 
tions. 

Depth  of 
each  irri- 
gation. 

Total 
depth  for 
season. 

California  (Counties) — cont'd. 

San  Bernardino  

Inches. 

1 
2-3 
3-5 
3-4 
3-6 
6-8 
3-4 

4 
3-5 

3 

24 
Irregular. 

7  or  8 

10 

6 

Weekly. 

Inches. 
6 
6 
2 

L 

1.5 
1.66 
3-1 
2 
3 

Inches. 

6 

Do 

do 

12  18 

Do 

April  to  October 

March  to  August 

May  to  September 

March  to  October 

April  to  September . . . 
June  to  September  . . . 
Summer 

6-10 

Riverside 

6-8 

Do.....' 

Do 

15 

4.  5-9 
9-12 

Do 

10 

5-6. 66 
12-16 

Do 

8 
18 

11.44 
17 

7.  5 

9.5 

•2-3 

6-10 

Do 

do 

9 

ARIZONA. 

Verde  Vallev 

March  to  September.. 
March  to  July;   also 
winter. 

Winter  and  spring 

March  to  December  .. 

Januarj  to  June 

All  the  vear 

(b) 

.     (c) 
6-12 

Lower  Lvnx  Creek 

Salt  River  Vallev 

Do 

Do 

(a) 

Do 

Twice      in      winter, 
monthlv     rest      of 
year. 

10 

C) 

Thorough  soaking.       b  Use  all  water  that  can  be  caught  in  flood  reservoirs  on  a  foothill  ranch. 

« Undetermined. 


Summary  showing  irrigation  season  and  frequency  of  application  and  amounts  of  water 
used  for  citrus  fruits  in  California. 


County. 

Rain- 
fall. 

Irrigation  season. 

Number 
of  irriga- 
tions. 

Depth  of 
each  ap- 
plication. 

Total 

depth  for 

season. 

Butte 

April  to  October 

do 

5-6 

2-7 

6 

b-i 

8-10 

.5-7 

5-6 

3 

6 

3 

3-4 

3-7 

6 

7 

3 

6 

4 

7 

6 

3 

4 

4-8 

6-8 

8 

3-5 

8 

8 

6-7 

4-6 

8 

8 

9 

6 

7 

8 

3-7 

4-6 

4 

5 

4-8 

6-8 

3 

Incites. 

4.5 

2 
2 

4 
6 
2 

2.5 
6-9 
3.5 
4 

1.5 
1 
0.  7.5-2 

1.5 
1.5 

2.5 
2.75 
4 

2. 5 
2 
4 
5 
4 
2 
.75-1.  5 
4.5 
6 
2 
2 

1.5 
3 
1.66 

Inches. 

22-26 

8 

4-14 

Tulare 

March  to  September. . 

April  to  October 

March  to  October 

do 

12 

Do 

10 

20-32 

Do 

48-60 

:::::::: 

10-14 

20 
12 
10 
18 
20 
20 
20 
20 
18 
15 
18 
18 
IS 
18 
15 
10 
12 
12 
12 
12 

do 

12.  5-15 

June  to  October 

May  to  October 

June  to  October 

July  to  September 

do 

18-27 

Do 

21 

Do 

12 

Do 

4.  .5-6 

Do...                      

3-7 

Do                                        

do 

4. 5-12 

Do 

March  to  November.. 
do 

10.5 

Do 

6 

Do                         

May  to  October 

July  to  October 

April  to  October 

May  to  October 

May,. Tuly,  September. 

May  to  October 

.....do 

9 

Do 

6 

Do 

17.5 

Do 

16.5 

12 

Do 

10 

Do                                            

8-16 

Do 

...do 

24-32 

Do 

Do , 

Do 

When  needed 

March  to  December  .. 

When  needed 

March  to  October 

June  to  October 

May  to  September 

April  to  December 

When  needed 

do 

40 

12-20 

16 

6-12 

Do 

Do 

Do 

12 
12 
12 

24-31.5 
24-36 

16 

16 

Do                    

13.5 

Do                         

12 

7 
10 

8 
11 
10 

8 
12 
10 

S 
IS 

May  to  November 

April  to  September... 
April  to  November . . . 
April  to  December  ... 

May  to  November 

May  to  September 

Mav  to  October 

do 

21 

Do 

10 

Do 

21 

Do                                   

Do                                               

Do                              

6 
2.5 

3 
2 
4 
3 

24-36 

10 

Do                           

15 

Do                                  

do 

8-16 

Do                              

do 

24-32 

Do                                

June  to  October 

9 

37 

Obviously  in  irrigation  practice  the  season  at  which  water  is  applied 
and  its  frequency  and  amount  are  all  conditioned  upon  local  rainfall, 
topography  and  soil,  atmospheric  conditions,  and  the  requirements 
of  the  plants  grown.  These  same  conditions  are  factors  in  determin- 
ing whether  irrigation  is  in  any  case  desirable  at  all.  and  thev  have 
been  already  quite  fully  discussed  (p.  10).  As  these  factors  are 
extremely  variable  within  the  same  geographical  area,  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  secure  trustworthy  results  from  close  analysis  of  the  insuffi- 
cient data  presented  in  the  tables,  nor  are  generalizations  safe.  The 
tabulations  do.  however,  bear  out  very  strongly  the  conclusions  pre- 
viously arrived  at  concerning  the  sufficiency  or  insufficiency  of  rain- 
fall (p.  IT),  and  also  that  one  must  study  logically  all  natural  con- 
ditions in  earth,  air.  and  plant  in  determining  need  of  irrigation.  The 
same  is  obviously  true  also  of  the  present  data,  which  represent  but 
attempts  on  the  part  of  many  growers  to  measure  that  need.  There 
are  also  to  be  found  in  the  tables  pertinent  suggestions  of  the  ways  in 
which  water  is  used,  which  each  one  interested  can  study  from  his 
own  point  of  view. 

In  the  first  place,  the  table  gives  more  definite  form  to  the  distinction 
drawn  between  regions  partially  or  occasionally  irrigated  and  those 
regularly  irrigated  (p.  9).  Where  one  or  two  irrigations  only  are 
mentioned  for  the  summer,  the  rainfall  usually  needs  only  a  small  addi- 
tion of  irrigation  water  to  supply  the  full  moisture  needs  of  the  crop. 
The  depth  of  water  applied  for  the  season  varies  with  different  grow- 
ers and  in  different  regions,  according  to  local  conditions.  The 
extremes  for  total  depth  are  2.5  inches  and  60  inches.  The  larger 
amounts  are  used  in  the  lighter,  deeper  soils  and  in  the  regions  of 
greatest  heat  and  least  rainfall.  Where  a  single  irrigation  is  speci- 
fied as  being  given  in  the  winter,  it  is  to  directly  supplement  the 
rainfall  by  adding  more  water  during  the  rainy  season,  the  object 
being  to  carry  the  trees  through  the  summer  without  irrigation  by 
means  of  thorough  and  clean  cultivation  for  moisture  conservation. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  those  practicing  winter  irrigation, 
although  widely  separated  geographically,  endeavor  to  apply  a  depth 
of  about  1  foot  of  water,  although  there  are  others  who  use  less. 
There  would  naturally  be  differences  as  to  the  amounts  the  different 
soils  would  absorb,  but  there  are  also  differences  in  the  supplies  avail- 
able in  the  winter  in  different  districts.  Where  water  is  most  abundant 
and  costs  least,  it  is  most  freely  used.  There  is  good  reason  to  doubt 
that  a  foot  of  water  at  one  application  is  actually  desirable  or  that 
there  are  soils  which  can  retain  it  within  reach  of  tree  roots. 

Where  the  number  of  irrigations  is  more  than  three,  it  may  be  taken 
as  indicating  that  irrigation  is  considered  essential  to  the  satisfactory 
growth  of  even  deciduous  fruits,  and  that  regular  irrigation  is  the 
policy  of  the  growers.     This,  too.  i-  supplementary  to  rainfall,  but. 


38 

owing  to  local  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  the  rainfall,  no  matter 
how  large  it  may  be,  can  not  be  relied  upon  to  carry  the  trees  through 
the  dry  season.  The  fact  is  that  the  soil  is  not  capable  either  of 
receiving  the  heav}'  rainfall  or  of  long  retaining  such  portions  as 
actually  enter  it.  There  is,  then,  a  considerable  part  of  the  rainfall 
which  is  worse  than  worthless,  because  it  does  injury  by  soil  washing 
and  soil  leaching,  and  places  where  extremely  heavy  rainfall  occurs 
may  be  actually  worse  off  than  other  places  with  less  rainfall.  Th?, 
table  clearly  shows  that  some  localities  of  large  rainfall  also  lead  in 
amounts  of  water  supplied  by  irrigation.  The  converse  is  also  true, 
for  some  localities  of  light  rainfall  report  success  with  deciduous  fruit 
trees  with  a  minimum  amount  of  irrigation  water.  Without  making 
too  much  of  individual  reports,  because  of  the  chance  of  error  in  the 
conceptions  of  correspondents,  which  has  already  been  freely  admitted, 
there  appear  instances  enough  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that  the 
deciduous  fruit  tree  can  winter  successfully  with  a  small  moisture 
supply,  and  is,  in  fact,  in  less  danger  from  lack  than  from  oversupply 
at  this  time  of  the  year.  If  there  be  enough  moisture  to  prevent 
injury  from  evaporation,  either  during  high  temperatures  at  the  South 
or  during  low  temperatures  at  the  North,  the  tree  will  start  good 
growth  as  the  season  advances  and  continue  it  if  irrigation  is  given 
promptly  and  in  sufficient  quantity.  There  must  always  be  a  deter- 
mination of  what  is  an  adequate  supply  by  reference  to  local  condi- 
tions, but  as  an  estimate  of  necessary  rainfall  has  been  made  at  20 
inches,  it  is  evident  that  adequate  irrigation  may  be  very  much  less 
than  that.  The  rainfall  of  20  inches  is  distributed  through  six  or 
seven  months.  Some  of  it  consists  of  light  rains,  with  long,  diy  inter- 
vals, where  there  is  slight  penetration  and  quick  evaporation.  Some 
of  it  is  lost  by  run  off  and  by  drainage.  It  is  not  surprising,  then, 
that  some  growers,  having  deep  valley  loams  to  render  their  irrigation 
effective,  report  success  with  deciduous  trees  wTith  8  or  10  inches  of 
water  applied  just  at  the  time  of  the  tree's  greatest  needs  and  used,  no 
doubt,  with  maximum  efficiency.  It  seems  to  be  a  warranted  deduc- 
tion, from  all  data  known  to  the  writer,  that  10  inches  of  water,  applied 
at  the  right  time  to  soils  of  good  depth  and  fair  retentiveness,  and 
accompanied  by  good  tillage  for  conservation,  is  an  adequate  supply 
for  five  months  of  growth  and  fruiting  even  when  the  rainfall  is  only 
about  enough  to  prevent  drying  out  or  freezing  out  during  the  winter 
season.  Some  growers  report  use  of  less  than  this.  Certainly  less 
will  do  for  young  trees  under  favorable  conditions,  and  some  of  the 
least  amounts  are  reported  from  the  newly  planted  regions.  As  the 
trees  advance  in  age  and  bearing,  larger  amounts  will  be  required. 
The  instances  of  greatest  frequency  of  application  may  be  taken  as 
indicating  soils  lacking  retentiveness,  either  through  shallowness  or 
coarseness,  or  either  of  these  accompanied  by  extreme  summer  heat 


39 

and  aridity.  So  marked  are  these  local  conditions  that  while  monthly 
use  of  water  is.  as  a  rule,  satisfactory  throughout  the  territory  included 
in  this  report,  there  are  places  where  water  is  used  twice  as  often,  and 
in  others  almost  weekly  applications  are  held  to  be  necessary.  There 
is  good  reason  to  think,  however,  that  although  local  conditions  may 
sometimes  make  such  frequency  necessary,  practice  should  tend  toward 
less  frequency  and  greater  penetration  where  this  is  possible. 

The  last  table  is  an  interesting  showing  of  irrigation  practice  with 
citrus  fruits  in  California.  As  these  trees  are  evergreens,  and  as  their 
habit  is  to  make  their  chief  fruit  growth  in  the  autumn  after  the  work 
of  the  deciduous  tree  has  been  finished  for  the  season,  the  irrigation 
season  is  for  them  much  longer.  As  the}'  are,  in  fact,  almost  always 
active  and  sustaining  uninterrupted  evaporation  from  their  leaf  sur- 
faces, they  must  always  be  provided  with  moisture  or  ill  will  result  to 
tree  or  fruit.  The}'  thus  require  more  water  than  do  deciduous  trees. 
There  is  the  same  relation  between  irrigation  and  rainfall  with  citrus 
as  with  deciduous  fruit  trees,  but  the  degree  of  relation  is  different. 
Many  trials  have  shown  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  grow  satis- 
factory citrus  fruits  without  irrigation.  There  is  no  combination  of 
heavy  rainfall,  or  winter  irrigation,  and  soil  retentiveness  which  will 
supply  the  summer  and  autumn  thirst  of  the  orange  or  lemon  in  Cali- 
fornia. Irrigation,  too,  must  be  maintained  both  summer  and  winter 
wherever  the  rainfall  is  not  well  distributed  and  adequate.  In  the 
chief  citrus  regions  of  the  State  rainfall  is  seldom  adequate  except 
during  January  and  February,  and  not  always  then.  Under  such 
conditions  an  estimate  of  the  average  requirements  of  citrus  fruit 
trees  in  bearing  would  be  about  20  inches  of  irrigation,  irrespective  of 
rainfall,  although,  as  the  table  shows,  there  are  localities  of  larger 
rainfall  and  more  retentive  soils  where  crops  of  these  fruits  can  be 
made  with  10  inches  used  just  at  the  right  time. 

There  are  many  other  considerations  involved  in  the  requirements 
of  different  fruit  trees  at  different  ages  and  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year,  which  have  been  discussed  in  a  previous  bulletin.11  to  which  the 
reader  is  again  referred.  The  superiority  of  fruit  grown  with  adequate 
moisture  and  the  danger  of  excessive  irrigation  are  also  considered  in 
that  publication.  It  should  be  added,  however,  that  the  experience  of 
the  Pacific  coast  clearly  shows  that  in  order  to  secure  fruit  of  high 
quality  and  marketable  size  there  must  be  followed  the  faithful  pur- 
suit of  approved  horticultural  methods  in  connection  with  adequate 
moisture.  Regular  pruning  to  promote  the  growth  of  strong  bearing 
wood  and  to  regulate  the  amount  of  it,  so  that  the  tree  snail  not  under- 
take too  great  a  task  for  its  capacity:  regular  thinning  of  fruit  to 
prevent  its  clustering  on  the  bearing  twigs,  so  that  satisfactory  size 

aU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer*'  Bui.  116. 


40 

can  not  bo  attained,  and  regular  fertilization  when  the  tree  shows  that 
the  strength  of  the  soil  is  decreasing,  are  all  arts  correlated  with 
irrigation  and  must  be  intelligently  pursued. 

METHODS  OF  APPLYING  IRRIGATION  WATER. 

In  the  Farmers*  Bulletin  above  referred  to  (No.  116)  a  general  dis- 
cussion is  given  of  irrigation  methods  and  their  relation  to  soil,  topog- 
raphy, available  water  supply,  etc.  In  this  bulletin  an  effort  will  be 
made  to  present  more  fully  the  details  of  prevailing  practices  as  ascer- 
tained by  special  inquiry. 

The  inquiry  shows  that  flooding — that  is,  the  free  flow  of  water  over 
the  whole  surface,  or  the  flow  between  rows  with  furrows  near  the 
trees  to  retain  the  water  in  the  interspaces — is  only  employed  on  some 
flat  lands  where  winter  irrigation  is  used  to  supplement  rainfall  when 
the  latter  is  occasionally  below  normal.  In  such  cases  water  is  avail- 
able in  large  quantities,  and  the  lay  of  the  land  favors  quite  even 
distribution.  Even  under  these  conditions  the  experience  of  growers 
soon  leads  to  the  adoption  of  deep  furrows  or  lateral  ditches,  or  some 
simple  check  system,  as  superior  to  flooding.  Summer  flooding  is 
done  only  by  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  better  methods  or  who 
count  their  trees  of  too  little  account  to  warrant  extra  effort.  It 
seems,  therefore,  a  fair  conclusion  that  flooding  is  only  resorted  to  as 
a  temporary  expedient  and  has  little  standing. 

THE  CHECK  SYSTEM. 

With  soils  of  such  character  that  vertical  percolation  is  very  rapid, 
flooding  in  checks,  by  Avhich  water  is  held  upon  a  particular  area  until 
it  sinks  below  the  surface,  is  considered  necessary.  There  is  a  tend- 
ency to  change  from  this  method  to  a  furrow  system  wherever  prac- 
ticable, because  the  former  requires  more  soil  shifting,  a  larger  head 
of  water  for  economical  operation,  more  labor  to  handle  it.  more  work- 
ing in  water  and  mud,  and  more  difficult  cultivation  to  relevel  the 
land  and  to  reduce  a  puddled  surface  to  satisfactory  tilth.  For  these 
and  other  reasons,  perhaps,  on  loams  of  medium  fineness  one  may  find 
two  adjacent  g*rowers  pursuing  different  methods,  while  on  coarse, 
porous  loams  the  check  system  prevails,  and  on  fine,  retentive  loams  the 
furrow  system  is  without  a  rival. 

The  check  system  can  be  seen  on  the  most  extensive  scale  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  where  the  land  is  so  level  and 
the  water  so  abundant  that  the  checks  can  be  measured  by  acres  or 
fractions  of  acres. a  In  its  most  perfect  form  it  is  found  in  Orange 
County  and  some  parts  of  Los  Angeles  County,  where  the  checks  are 
measured  by  feet,  rarely  by  rods.  Very  large  checks  are  chiefly  used 
for  field  crops,  although  also  employed  for  winter  irrigation  of  vine- 

aKpt.  on  Irrigation,  Senate  Ex.  Doc  41,  52d  Cong..  1st  session,  Part  I,  p.  MOT. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  108,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.     Irrigation  Investigate 


Plate  II. 


Fig.  1.— The  "  Ridger"  for  Levee  making  in  the 
Check  System. 


Fig.  2.— The  V-shaped  "Crowder"  and  Metal  Dams  or  "Tappoons. 


41 

yards  and  orchards  of  deciduous  fruits.  With  fruits,  however,  even 
in  the  same  district,  the  tendency  is  toward  using  smaller  checks  care- 
fully leveled  before  planting.  With  the  large-check  system  permanent 
levees,  either  in  rectangular  form  or  on  the  contour  plan,  are  gener- 
ally used.  The  small-check  system  is  chiefly  laid  oil'  with  temporary 
levees,  quickly  made  with  special  appliances  and  as  quickly  worked 
back  to  a  level  as  soon  as  the  ground  dries  sufficiently  after  irrigation, 
and  the  whole  surface  kept  well  cultivated  until  the  time  arrives  for  a 
restoration  of  the  levees  for  the  next  irrigation.  The  latter  is  the 
leading  horticultural  mode.  It  is  carefully  described  by  Mr.  Sydmer 
Ross,  of  Fullerton,  Orange  County,  Cal..  as  follows: 

The  check  system,  as  carried  out  in  the  best-handled  orchards,  entails  much  hard 
work,  but  after  you  are  through  with  an  irrigation  you  know  that  each  and  every 
tree  has  had  its  full  supply  of  water  or  you  know  the  reason  why.  The  ground  must 
be  cultivated,  say,  about  5  inches  deep,  so  as  to  have  plenty  of  loose  soil  with  which 
to  throw  up  a  high  ridge.  Then  a  four  or  six  horse  "ridger"  (PI.  II,  fig.  1)  should 
be  run  once  each  way  between  the  rows,  if  it  is  a  citrus  or  deciduous  orchard,  or 
twice  should  the  trees  be  walnuts,  because  these  trees  are  grown  about  40  feet  apart. 
After  this  is  done  the  ridger  should  be  run  entirely  around  the  outside  of  the  piece 
to  be  irrigated,  so  as  to  have  as  perfect  a  ridge  as  possible  on  the  outside.  One  man 
will  ridge  about  15  acres  in  a  day.  The  ridger  should  be  built  with  a  steel  plate 
extending  along  the  bottom  of  both  sides,  bolted  to  the  inside  and  projecting  about 
2  inches,  so  as  to  take  good  hold  of  the  ground.  Then  with  one  horse  attached  to 
what  is  locally  known  as  a  "  jump  scraper,"  one  side  of  the  checks  should  be  closed  up, 
for  the  ridger  in  making  the  cross  ridges  breaks  down  the  first  ridge  at  its  intersection. 
These  repairs  were  at  first  made  with  a  shovel,  but  the  jump  scraper,  also  called 
locally  the  "horse  shovel,"  closes  up  the  gaps  very  quickly.  The  practice  generally 
followed  is  to  close  up  the  high  side  of  the  checks  if  the  land  does  not  cut  by  running 
water,  but  if  it  cuts,  close  up  the  lower  side.     (PI.  VII,  fig.  2.) 

After  closing  up  the  checks  the  ditches  are  plowed  out  and  then  the  V-shaped 
"crowder"  is  run  twice  through  them.  (PI.  II,  fig.  2.)  On  lands  inclined  to  cut  it 
is  advisable  that  the  length  of  the  rows  to  be  irrigated  should  not  be  over  250  feet, 
but  in  heavy  land  this  distance  can  be  considerably  increased,  if  necessary,  without 
danger  of  cutting  the  ridges  by  too  long  a  run  of  water. 

If  the  checks  have  been  closed  up  on  the  low  side  of  the  ridge,  it  is  better  to  run 
the  water  to  the  ends  of  the  ditch  and  water  the  last  row  first;  but  if  the  high  side 
has  been  closed  up,  it  is  best  to  water  first  the  row  nearest  the  gate  or  the  main 
ditch,  as  the  case  may  be,  as  in  each  instance  dry  earth  will  thus  be  available,  if 
necessary,  to  close  up  the  checks.  The  water  is  run  down  the  row  to  the  end  tree, 
and  as  soon  as  the  last  check  is  filled  it  is  closed  up,  and  so  on  till  all  are  filled  and 
closed,  when  the  water  is  turned  down  the  next  row. 

To  do  good  work  it  is  usual  to  allow  three  men  for  every  50  inches  of  water,  but 
in  our  own  practice  we  have  had  much  better  results  by  dividing  up  our  Avater  and 
running  from  35  to  40  inches  to  a  ditch  and  allowing  two  men  for  such  streams.  In 
doing  this  we  get  better  work  and  find  it  much  easier  for  the  men.  It  everything  is 
well  in  hand,  each  man  will  irrigate  about  30  acres  in  a  day. 

For  turning  the  water  from  the  ditches  into  the  checks  metal  dams  or  tappoons 
are  used.  PI.  II,  fig.  2,  shows  two  of  these,  one  of  which  has  a  gate  for  the  divi- 
sion of  the  water  when  the  stream  is  too  large  and  is  divided  and  two  rows  are 
watered  at  the  same  time.  The  gate  is  not  a  great  success,  as  the  water  is  apt  soon  to 
cut  its  May  under  the  tappoon,  but  it  may  be  much  improved  by  having  a  shelf  for 


42 

the  water  to  drop  on  after  it  passes  through  the  opening.  The  common  practice  for 
dividing  water  is  to  throw  a  tappoon  partly  across  the  ditch,  putting  a  gunny  sack 
on  the  opposite  side  to  prevent  cutting  by  the  water.  This  is,  on  the  whole,  fully 
as  satisfactory  as  using  the  tappoon  with  a  gate. 

All  who  follow  this  system  should  get  ready  for  the  water  before  it  comes.  A  great 
many  seem  to  think  that  if  they  ridge  up  their  land,  close  up  the  checks,  and  plow 
out  their  ditches  everything  necessary  has  been  done.  Such  is  not  the  case,  as  ditches 
that  are  liable  to  cut  should  be  fixed  in  the  weak  places  with  brush  or  burlaps.  Old 
gunny  sacks  cut  open  and  spread  out  are  excellent  for  this  purpose.  ( Occasionally 
there  are  places  where  it  is  impossible  to  get  a  perfect  ridge.  These  should  be  looked 
up  and  fixed  with  the  shovel.  The  jump  scraper  will  not  entirely  close  up  a  check; 
it  generally  requires  a  shovelful  or  two  to  complete  it.  It  is  usual  after  the  water  is 
turned  down  one  row  to  fix  up  the  next  one,  but  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  a 
few  rows  fixed  up  ahead,  for  there  come  times  when  breaks  occur  and  there  is  not 
time  to  make  the  necessary  repairs,  and  when  water  once  gets  the  start  there  is  apt 
to  be  much  trouble  and  hard  work  before  it  can  be  put  under  control,  besides  doing 
poor  work. 

After  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  work,  the  ridges  are  split  with  a  listing  plow  or 
a  furrower  attached  to  a  cultivator.  Then  the  ground  should  be  run  over  with  a 
harrow,  setting  the  teeth  to  go  well  in,  so  as  to  pulverize  the  surface  thoroughly.  By 
using  the  harrow  the  ground  can  be  worked  about  one  day  earlier  than  with  the 
cultivator,  and  it  also  prevents  the  ground  from  baking  till  such  time  as  it  can  be 
worked  with  the  latter  implement,  besides  doing  far  better  work  than  with  the  culti- 
vator alone,  especially  when  there  is  much  land  to  go  over,  as  some  of  it  is  certain 
to  get  too  dry  before  it  can  be  reached,  and  then  it  will  not  pulverize  well.  All  trees 
should  be  worked  around  by  hand  with  either  a  fork  or  hoe  as  soon  after  irrigation 
as  the  ground  becomes  dry  enough  and  before  it  becomes  hard. 

SPECIFICATIONS    FOR     HOMEMADE     IMPLEMENTS    FOR  THE  CHECK  SYSTEM. 

The  following  implements,  used  in  preparing  the  ground  for  irriga- 
tion by  the  check  system,  were  made  on  the  fruit  ranch  of  J.  B.  Xen', 
Anaheim.  CaL,  with  the  tools  ordinarily  found  on  a  ranch  and  with 
but  little  help  from  the  blacksmith: 

The  ridger. — This  has  sides  of  2  by  16  inch  pine  7  feet  long,  stand- 
ing 18  inches  apart  at  the  rear  and  5  feet  apart  at  the  front  end.  The 
sides  may  be  made  of  two  2  by  8  inch  pieces  with  2  by  3  inch  battens 
bolted  on  securely.  The  front  crossbar  is  of  2  by  4  inch  pine  6  feet 
2  inches  long  and  is  set  20  inches  from  the  end.  The  rear  crossbar  is 
of  2  by  4  inch  pine  -i  feet  4  inches  long.  It  is  set  7  inches  from  the 
end  of  the  sides.  The  diagonal  braces  are  1  by  3  inch  pine  6  feet  10 
inches  long.  The  short  side  braces  are  2  by  3  inch  pine  15  inches 
long.  The  lower  inside  edge  should  be  protected  by  a  strip  of  steel  or 
iron  |  by  2  inches  extending  to  and  around  the  front  ends,  which 
should  be  beveled  to  a  sharp  edge.  The  inside  should  also  be  lined 
with  sheet  iron  6  or  8  inches  above  the  J  by  2  inch  piece,  and  should 
have  sheet  iron  pieces  extending  16  inches  beyond  the  rear  end  of  the 
sides,  tapered  and  braced  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  cut  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  the  ridger  firmer  at  the  top.  Every  part  of  the  ridger 
should  be  firmly  bolted  with  f-inch  bolts,  except  the  £  by  2  inch  iron, 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  108,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations 


Plate  III. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr..  Bui.  108,  Office  of  Expt  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  IV. 


44 

inches  and  30  inches  long  from  draft  ring  to  the  bend  downward. 
The  shovel  is  of  No.  16  sheet  iron  24  inches  long  by  18  inches  deep. 
The  handles  are  those  used  on  any  cultivator.  The  beams  are  bent  to 
stand  6  inches  forward  of  a  square  placed  on  top  of  the  beams.  The 
braces  are  of  f-inch  round  iron.  The  shovel  is  slightly  cupped  to 
make  it  hold  more  earth.     (Fig.  3.) 

The  portable  gate  or  tappoon. — These  are  for  shutting  ditches,  and  are 
made  of  No.  16  sheet  iron  2  feet  wide  and  of  any  desired  length,  but 
usually  3  feet.  4  feet,  or  5  feet  long.  The  corners  are  cut  off  to  a 
circle  starting  about  1  foot  back  of  the  corner.  The  handles  are 
made  of  two  pieces  of  1  by  3  inch  pine  12  inches  longer  than  the  gate, 


Fig.  3.— "Jump  scraper"  used  to  complete  levees  made  by  the  "  ridger"  for  the  check  system. 

and  are  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  sheet  iron  and  secured  by  i-inch 
bolts.     (PI.  II.  fig.  2.) 

DOUBLE    CHECKING,    BASIXIXG,    ETC. 

Double  checking,  where  the  rapid  slope  demands  small  inclosures, 
and  basining.  by  which  water  is  inclosed  in  small  places  near  the  trees 
and  not  spread  upon  the  whole  area,  are  both  sufficiently  described  in 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  116,  and  their  adaptations  to  exceptional  condi- 
tions of  soil  topography  and  water  supply  are  there  indicated. 

THE  COMBINED  CHECK  AND  FURROW  METHOD. 

An  effort  to  escape  in  some  measure  the  puddling  of  the  surface 
which  results  from  allowing  water  to  sink  away  upon  finely  pulver- 
ized soil  lies  in  the  direction  of  breaking  up  the  soil  roughly  in  the 
bottoms  of  the  checks,  which  facilitates  the  quick  passage  of  the  water 
into  the  subsoil.  This  is  done  by  running  a  small  plow  or  three  large 
cultivator  teeth  attached  to  a  single  frame  before  the  ridger  is  used  to 
form  the  levees.     Mr.  A.  D.  Bishop,  of  Orange  County,  Cal.,  uses  a 


U.  S.  Dept  of  Agr.,  Bui.  108,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  V. 


Fig.  1 .— Furrower  at  Work  in  Orange  Orchard  of  A.  D.  Bishop. 


Fig.  2.— Use  of  Homemade  Ridger.  Orange  Orchard  of  A.  D.  Bishop, 
Orange  County.  Cal. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  108,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation   Investigations. 


Plate  VI. 


45 

combined  furrow  and  check  system  as  shown  in  the  accompanying" 
diagram  (tig.  -±.)  He  furrows  the  land  first  with  a  three-tooth  fur- 
rower  (PI.  V,  fig.  1)  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  water 
is  to  flow  and  then  uses  the  ridger  (PI.  V,  fig.  2)  to  make  levees  in  line 
with  the  water,  laying  out  the  work  so  as  to  get  the  closest  approxi- 
mation to  a  level.  When  the  levees  are  made,  the  jump  scraper  is 
used  and  the  end  of  each  third  or  fourth  furrow  bank  is  connected 
with  the  levees  at  alternating  sides  of  the  check  made  by  the  levees. 
This  causes  the  water  to  flow  through  the  furrows  from  side  to  side 
and  distribute  itself  evenly  over  the  whole  ground.  The  number  of 
furrows  which  can  be  passed  before  connecting  with  the  bank  depends 
upon  the  slope  of  the  land — the  nearer  level  the  land  the  greater  the 

£*•  £*     FURROWS    p$ 


Fig.  4. — Combined  cheek  and  furrow  irrigation. 

distance  that  can  be  left  between  the  connections  and  vice  versa.  In 
this  way  the  water  is  taken  slowly  down  a  grade  where  it  would  flow 
too  rapidly  were  it  admitted  to  furrows  in  the  direction  of  its  flow. 

Another  combination  of  the  check  and  furrow  system  is  found  where 
the  lowest  spaces  of  a  slope  irrigated  by  furrows  are  laid  off  in  checks 
to  catch  the  overflow  from  the  furrows  and  compel  its  percolation  at 
a  point  which  would  otherwise  receive  too  little  water.  The  parts  of 
a  furrow  system  which  lie  farthest  from  the  source  of  supply  are 
obviously  least  supplied,  because  long  flow  can  not  be  maintained  there 
without  much  loss  from  overflow.  Holding  the  water  in  checks  at 
the  lower  end — usually  for  two  rows  of  trees — is  quite  a  help  toward 
even  distribution. 


46 

THE  FURROW  SYSTEM. 

The  furrow  .system  is  the  prevailing  method  of  irrigating  fruit  lands 
in  all  parts  of  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  almost  the  only  method  indicated 
by  correspondents  in  the  newer  regions  of  Idaho  and  eastern  Wash- 
ington. Possibly  there,  as  in  California,  there  are  some  soils  which 
could  be  better  handled  with  less  water  by  the  check  system,  but 
economy  of  water  is  of  less  account  at  the  North  at  present,  and  dis- 
tribution by  furrows  over  quite  porous  soils  is  accomplished  by  using 
larger  flows  for  a  short  time.  It  is,  therefore,  to  be  expected  that  as 
settlement  progresses  there  may  be,  before  long,  recourse  to  the  check 
system  in  those  places  to  which  it  is  suited.  The  furrow  system  has, 
however,  a  very  marked  theoretical  advantage  in  the  escape  from  sat- 
urating the  surface  soil,  which  has  to  dry  out  again  before  it  can  be 
cultivated,  and  is  only  with  difficulty  reduced  to  line  tilth  after  such 
puddling.  Another  advantage  is  in  saving  the  water  used  in  moist- 
ening soil  which  has  to  be  dried  by  evaporation.  Other  theoret- 
ical advantages  lie  in  the  even  distribution  of  the  water  with  the  least 
displacement  of  the  soil  and  the  introduction  of  the  water  to  the  sub- 
soil, where  deep-rooting  plants  should  derive  their  chief  sustenance. 
It  is  becoming  quite  clear  that  all  these  theoretical  advantages  have 
not  been  realized  by  the  furrow  system  as  generally  practiced,  and  a 
number  of  modifications  are  now  being  introduced  which  promise 
their  fuller  realization.  The  scientific  principles  involved  are  also 
becoming  better  understood  through  investigation/  (PI.  IX,  fig.  2.) 
The  changes  now  taking  place  tend  toward  reducing  the  difference 
between  what  was  formerly  clearly  differentiable  as  the  "  large-fur- 
row" and  the  " small-furrow"  methods,  because  the  improvement  lies 
chiefly  in  introducing  the  water  more  deeply  in  the  soil,  as  will  be 
shown  later,  and  this  is  done  by  using  fewer  and  deeper  furrows. 
Still,  the  terms  are  useful.     (PL  VIII,  fig.  2.) 

IRRIGATING   BY   LARGE    FURROWS. 

Where  one  to  four  furrows  are  used,  these  are  large  furrows,  while 
the  small-furrow  system  uses  from  five  to  eight  or  more  between  two 
rows  of  trees.  Large  furrows  are  made  with  the  double-moldboard 
plow,  or  with  a  single  plow  followed  by  the  "crowder,"  or  by  plowing 
out  dead  furrows  between  the  rows,  etc.  Their  number  depends  upon 
the  size  of  the  trees  and  the  fitness  of  the  soil  for  lateral  seepage. 
The}'  are  wide  enough  and  deep  enough  to  carry  or  hold  a  large  stream 
of  water,  as  shown  by  PI.  IX,  fig.  3.  This  illustration  also  shows 
a  method  used  chiefly  for  winter  irrigation  on  land  which  is  so  nearly 
level  that  the  water  will  flow  slowly  into  the  furrows  and  stand  there 
until  it  disappears  by  percolation.  It  is  also  used  where  one  or  two 
summer  irrigations  are  all  that  are  required  to  carry  the  trees  through. 

a  California  Sta.  Rpt.  1897-98,  pp.  40-96. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  108r  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations.  PLATE   VII 


Fig.  1  .—Continuous  Cement  Flume  with  Weirs  to  raise  Water  to  Outlet 

Tubes. 


Fig.  2.— Starting  with  the  •"Jump  Scraper  •■  to  close  a  Row  of  Gaps. 


U.  S.  Dept  of  Agr.,  Bui.  108,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  VIII. 


Fig.  1.— Aqueduct  Beneath  a  Highway  from  a  Main  Ditch  to  Flume  Supplying 

a  Vineyard. 


Fig.  2.— "  Large-furrow  Irrigation  of  Vineyard  from  Lateral,  following  a 

Contour  Line. 


U.  S    Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  108,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.     Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  IX. 


Fig.  1.— Newer  System  of  Furrow  Irrigation  at  Riverside.  Cal. 


Fig.  2.— Board  Flume  and  Furrow  Irrigation  at 
Fullerton,  Cal. 


Fig.  3.— Irrigation  of  Olive  Trees  by  large  Furrows  near  Pomona,  Cal. 


47 


It  is  obviously  adapted  only  to  flat  land  or  to  land  of  uniform  grade. 
Irrigation  by  a  single  furrow  cut  near  to  the  row  of  trees  is  a  widely 
prevalent  method  with  young  trees.  When  the  trees  are  larger,  or 
when  intercultures  are  undertaken,  the  large  furrows  are  multiplied. 
In  this  case  the  water  is  admitted  to  the  furrows  from  a  board  flume. 
Large  furrows  are  often  used  in  a  bearing  orchard,  the  furrows  being 
tilled,  from  a  lateral  ditch,  this  lateral  being  parallel  to  the  main  ditch. 
In  this  case  the  board  dam  is  used  to  divert  the  lateral  into  one  large 
furrow  after  another,  and  when  the  furrow  is  tilled  dirt  is  thrown  in 
to  prevent  the  reflow  of  the  water  into  the  lateral.  The  use  of  large 
furrows  on  sloping  land  is  shown  in  PI.  IX.  fig.  2,  where  the  lateral 
follows  a  contour  line  and  water  is  taken  out  on  each  side. 


.rf* 


Fig.  5.—  •  Large  furrow"  irrigation  of  orange  trees  at  Palermo,  Butte  County,  Cal. 

The  great  variety  in  large  furrow  practice  is  suggested  in  the  fore- 
going. A  systematic  manner  of  proceeding  is  that  of  Mr.  A.  Trost,  of 
Palermo,  Cal..  as  described  hy  himself: 

The -soil  is  red,  gravelly  clay,  the  upper  12  inches  without  rocks;  below  this  the 
gravel  is  more  rocky.  At  the  depth  of  3  or  4  feet  the  red  clay  changes  into  a  whitish 
one  and  water  enters  it  very  slowly.  My  orchard  is  12  acres — 1,120  feet  long  from 
north  to  south  and  510  feet  from  east  to  west.  The  northeast  corner  is  the  highest. 
Here  the  water  ditch  enters,  and  I  run  my  head  ditch  along  the  east  side  from  north 
to  south.  There  are  51  rows  of  trees  in  that  direction,  the  north  and  south  outside 
rows  being  olives.  There  are  23  orange  trees  in  the  row  from  east  to  west  and  1  olive 
tree  on  the  west  end.  All  trees  are  20  feet  apart.  I  use  21  miner's  inches  per  day  for  5 
days  in  the  following  manner:  I  use  4  furrows  about  5  or  6  inches  deep  and  about 
o  feet  apart  between  rows,  leaving  the  furrows  nearest  the  trees  from  5  to  6  feet  from 
the  trunks  (fig.  5).  The  4  lower  rows  on  the  west  side  1  cross  furrow  with  2  furrows 
betvveen  the  trees.     I  divide  the  24  inches  into  51  equal  streamlets  by  using  one  gate 


48 

for  each  4  rows.  First  turn  this  amount  in  the  furrow  south  nearest  to  tree.  When 
the  water  has  moved  to  the  olive  tree,  I  divide  the  water  between  the  4  furrows  for 
the  lower  6  trees  and  through  the  cross  furrows.  The  next  morning  I  divide  the 
water  at  the  tenth  tree  for  the  4  furrows.  On  the  third  day  I  let  only  one-half  the 
water  go  down  in  the  furrow  south  of  tree,  the  other  in  the  one  north  nearest  to  tree. 
On  the  fourth  day  I  turn  part  of  it  in  the  middle  [furrows  near  the  head  ditch,  and 
by  the  fifth  day  I  have  my  place  equally  wet  from  one  end  to  the  other,  taking  care 
that  the  top  soil  near  the  trunks  of  trees  remains  dry  on  the  surface.  I  keep  the  soil 
around  the  trunks  of  the  trees  about  2  inches  higher  for  a  width  of  3  feet.  In  this 
way  I  use  all  the  water  without  running  any  off,  and  lose  only  the  evaporation.  The 
whole  amount  of  water  used  is  120  inches,  equal  to  10  inches  or  130,000  gallons  per 
acre,  or  4.5  acre-inches  or  1,200  gallons  per  tree. 

I  irrigate  about  every  four  weeks,  running  the  water  five  days  and  turning  it  on 
again  three  weeks  after  it  is  taken  off.  I  have  irrigated  as  early  as  the  1st  of  April 
and  as  late  as  the  middle  of  October,  depending  on  late  rains  in  spring  and  early 
rains  in  fall;  usually  from  five  to  six  irrigations  per  year.  After  four  or  five  days 
I  cultivate  14  feet  wide  between  the  trees  from  6  to  8  inches  deep;  for  this  I  use  a 
7-foot  cultivator  and  four  horses.  Near  the  trunk  of  the  tree  I  work  about  2  inches 
deep  and  a  little  farther  away  4  inches  deep,  using  the  three-cornered  orchard  plow 
with  a  cultivator  4  feet  wide  and  two  horses. 

IRRIGATING    BY   LARGE    FURROWS   WITHOUT   SUM    ER   CULTIVATION. 

An  exception  to  the  continuous  cultivation  of  orchard  ground  which 
is  prevalent  in  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  Pacific  coast  is  found  in 
the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  California,  where  furrows  are 
made  at  the  beginning  of  each  irrigating  season  and  used  continuously 
during  that  summer.  The  ensuing  winter  plowing  and  early  spring 
cultivation  are  relied  upon  to  keep  the  soil  in  good  condition.  Although 
this  constitutes  an  exception  and  the  practice  is  widely  followed  for 
what  seems  to  the  growers  of  the  region  to  be  good  and  sufficient  rea- 
son, it  does  not  militate  against  the  truth  of  the  continuous  summer 
cultivation  policy  which  elsewhere  prevails,  nor  does  it  follow  that 
this  policy  would  not  be  better  in  some  respects  even  in  the  region 
where  it  is  abandoned.  It  is  a  district  of  very  large  water  supply, 
and  the  arrangements  of  the  water  company  are  such  that  the  grower 
must  pa}^  for  a  certain  number  of  inches  of  water  by  the  }Tear  and  is 
entitled  to  this  amount  of  continuous  flow.  He  has  to  use  it  or  neg- 
lect it  as  it  flows,  and  can  not  get  more  at  one  time  by  not  using  it  at 
another.  For  this  reason  he  has  not  the  motive  for  close  observation 
which  prevails  under  other  conditions,  and  to  escape  the  cost  of  sum- 
mer cultivation  and  fresh  furrowing  out  he  has  recourse  to  frequent 
flows  in  the  old  furrows.  The  following  interesting  account  of  the 
prevailing  method  was  prepared  by  Mr.  W.  R.  Fountain,  of  New- 
castle, Cal. 

Water  is  supplied  almost  exclusively  by  one  company,  which  has  met  requirements 
up  to  date  and  seems  fixed  to  supply  in  excess  of  demand.  It  is  supplied  by  the 
miner's  inch;  price  $45  per  inch  per  season  for  a  constant  supply.  The  inch  is 
measured  under  6-inch  pressure. 


49 

Beginning  May  1,  five  months  is  called  the  irrigating  season,  but  the  purchaser  can 
have  the  water  twelve  months  per  annum  if  he  wants  it.  The  water  company 
collects  monthly.  The  purchaser  can  not  start  the  season  with  little  and  increase  at 
pleasure,  except  upon  payment  for  the  full  season  on  the  basis  of  the  largest  amount 
used  at  any  time. 

With  this  constant  supply  we  use  it  constantly,  piping  to  high  points  and  moving 
it  from  place  to  place.  When  no  fruit  is  ripening  it  is  attempted  to  water  a  block  of 
trees  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  water  is  not  checked  back,  but  is  run  in  ditches, 
mostly  in  one,  but  occasionally  in  two,  along  each  row  of  trees  or  vines.  When  a 
variety  of  fruit  is  ripening  more  water  is  given  the  trees,  while  after  a  variety  is 
picked  and  before  any  other  is  nearly  ripe  the  effort  is  made  to  water  each  tree  every 
tenor  twelve  days.  Level  land  and  low  spots  stand  a  good  chance,  as  a  rule,  to  get  too 
much  water,  and  a  larger  stream  is  used  per  row  to  force  the  water  through  quickly. 
Then  it  is  taken  off  in  a  shorter  time  than  it  would  be  where  the  trees  are  on  a  side- 
hill  and  have  good  drainage. 

About  1  inch  for  each  8  acres  is  generally  used.  This  is  for  deciduous  fruits.  The 
citrus  fruits  and  berries  require  watering  about  once  a  week;  if  there  is  good  drain- 
age they  would  prosper  if  watered  every  three  days.  In  such  ground  I  have  not 
heard  of  their  getting  either  too  much  water  or  too  much  fertilizer.  The  general 
practice  is  to  plow,  cross  plow,  and  then  afier  each  rain  cultivate,  with  no  cultiva- 
tion whatever  after  beginning  the  use  of  water.  I  think  an  occasional  cultivation 
after  watering  would  help. 

There  is  a  tendency  for  the  ditches  to  become  packed  after  water  has  been  flo  »ving 
through  them  for  some  time,  in  which  case  but  little  water  soaks  into  the  ground. 
When  this  occurs,  I  dig  a  pot-hole  in  the  ditch  to  allow  the  wTater  to  soak  in,  or  else 
loosen  the  ground  about  the  trees  with  a  spade  and  carry  the  ditch  through  this 
loosened  ground.  I  block  out  my  ditches  so  that  I  can  get  my  stream  through  to 
the  last  tree  in  about  sixteen  hours.  Where  the  water  has  not  reached  the  end 
of  some  of  the  ditches,  I  turn  the  water  into  it  from  a  stream  that  is  flush,  and  by 
keeping  a  man  with  a  hoe  constantly  with  the  wTater,  I  manage  to  get  it  over  the 
field  at  about  4  p.  m.  I  wet  about  350  trees  in  a  block  on  hillsides;  on  a  flat  I  wet 
less,  using  more  water  in  each  stream,  and  changing  it  about  every  twelve  hours 
nstead  of  every  twenty-four  hours.     My  trees  grow  about  130  to  an  acre. 

SYSTEMATIC   DISTRIBUTION    OF   WATER   ON   HILLSIDES. 

The  common  method  of  carrying  water  in  pipes  to  the  various  high 
points  of  several  slopes  or  "irrigation  faces"  from  which  it  can  be 
admitted  to  large  furrows  crossing  or  descending  those  faces  is  open 
to  some  difficulties  and  disarrangements.  P.  W.  Butler,  of  Peniwn, 
Cal. ,  has  had  in  successful  operation  for  several  }^ears  a  system  of 
zigzag  ditches  for  carrying  and  distributing  and  for  catching  outflow 
and  redistributing  on  a  lower  face.  This  is  also  a  system  which  makes 
ditches  and  furrows  but  once  a  year  and  dispenses  with  summer  cul- 
tivation. Mr.  Butler's  account,  as  illustrated  by  the  accompanying 
diagrams,  is  as  follows: 

The  amount  of  water  generally  used  in  this  section  for  the  irrigation  of  deciduous 
fruit  trees  is  1  inch  to  5  acres  of  orchard  (miner's  inch  under  6-inch  pressure),  and 
is  applied  to  each  row  of  trees  by  one  stream  of  water  of  sufficient  quantity  to  just 
reach  the  end  of  the  row.  Much  of  the  water  is  thus  wasted  because  of  inability  to 
properly  adjust  its  distribution.     It  is  usually  run  twenty-four  hours,  then  changed  to 

15013— No.  108—02 1 


50 

other  parts  of  the  orchard  until  the  whole  is  covered,  which  takes  about  three  weeks' 
time,  when  the  process  is  repeated,  continuing  throughout  the  summer,  or  from  May  1 
until  October  1.  There  is  no  cultivation  in  the  meantime,  and  at  each  irrigation  the 
Avater  is  run  in  the  same  ditches.  This  system  is  followed  in  nearly  all  the  orchards 
of  Penryn  and  vicinity,  some  on  quite  steep  hillsides,  which  suffer  when  the  water 
is  thus  applied.  I  have  never  liked  this  method,  and  for  many  years  have  used  a 
different  system  in  irrigating  all  orchards  over  which  I  have  had  control.  In  my 
home  orchard  I  have  a  reservoir  on  the  highest  land,  from  which  water  can  be  con- 
veyed as  desired  to  every  part.  My  ditches  are  run  on  a  grade  with  a  fall  from  2  to  3 
inches  to  the  rod  and  from  5  to  8  feet  apart.  At  each  irrigation  the  water  is  run 
about  thirty-six  hours  before  changing.  The  round  of  the  orchard  is  made  in  ten  to 
•fourteen  days.  None  of  my  small  ditches  exceeds  400  feet  in  length.  When  I  begin 
to  irrigate  a  section  I  turn  on  from  the  reservoir  water  sufficient  to  cover  that  section 
in  a  few  hours,  then  lessen  it  until  it  just  reaches  the  end  of  each  row,  but  see  that  it 
reaches  the  end  of  each  row  even  if  a  little  surplus  passes  over.  This  surplus  I  take 
up  in  a  main  ditch,  to  be  again  used  on  lower  ground.     This  is  continued  until  the 


Fig.  6 


Large  furrow"  system 


hi  hillsides,  with  zigzag  ditches  for  distribution,  catchment,  and 
redistribution. 


lowest  part  of  the  orchard  is  reached,  and  very  little  water  is  ever  wasted.  By  run- 
ning on  a  grade  that  is  so  nearly  level  the  water  is  applied  uniformly,  even  on  the 
driest  parts  of  the  hill  slopes.  I  run  the  main  distributing  ditches  in  a  zigzag  man- 
ner, taking  water  from  these  ditches  to  cover  the  lower  sections.  I  formerly  used 
pipes  to  lead  the  water  down  the  steepest  grades,  but  this  system  I  have  abandoned 
and  now  use  open  zigzag  ditches  for  mains  (fig.  6).  From  the  main  zigzag  ditches  I 
do  not  take  the  water  at  the  turning  point,  as  there  is  more  liability  of  breakage  than 
if  taken  when  running  straight,  or  at  whatever  point  is  necessary  to  keep  the  dis- 
tributing ditches  on  an  average  of  8  feet  apart.  The  length  of  the  zigzag  ditches  varies 
according  to  the  slope  of  the  hillside.  When  steep,  the  ditch,  before  turning,  must  be 
of  greater  length  than  where  the  ground  is  more  level.  (See  diagram.)  I  use  no 
gates,  but  bush  the  openings  with  coarse  swale  nay.  I  also  bush  the  turning  points 
of  ditches,  as  they  are  in  permanent  use  throughout  the  season,  and  after  the  first 


51 

few  days'  use  require  but  little  care  to  keep  them  in  order.     These  ditches  are  torn 
up  during  the  season  of  cultivation  and  have  to  be  renewed  every  year. 

I  use  a  level  set  on  a  frame  8.25  feet  long  and  about  2.5  feet  high  (one  leg  longer 
than  the  other)  to  make  any  grade  desired  (fig.  7).  This  I  drag  its  length  on  the 
ground  after  getting  the  level,  and  can  mark  the  line  of  ditch  nearly  half  as  fast  as  a 
man  can  walk. 


Fig.  7.— Handy  level  for  locating  large  furrows  in 
hillside  irrigation. 

During  the  last  ten  years  I  have  used  many  thousand  feet  of  pipe  in  irrigating,  but 
have  found  it  too  expensive  to  be  practicable,  and  it  frequently  gets  clogged,  causing 
much  trouble.  The  zigzag  method  of  taking  the  water  down  hills  on  the  dry  ridges, 
distributing  to  right  and  left,  picking  it  up  again  in  zigzag  ditches  at  the  end  of  the 
rows  or  system,  to  be  used  again  on  lower  ground,  brings  into  use  the  largest  quan- 
tity where  it  is  most  needed  and  utilizes  it  all  without  waste. 

IRRIGATING    BY    SMALL    FURROWS. 

It  has  already  been  suggested  that  recently  the  small  furrow  method 
of  irrigation  is  undergoing  certain  modifications.  The  occasion  for 
the  change  is  that  in  certain  of  the  heavier  soils,  particularly,  the  use 
of  water  in  many  shallow  furrows  followed  by  cultivation  results  in 
the  formation  of  a  compact  layer,  and  this  prevents  the  percolation  of 
the  water  into  the  subsoil.  This  discovery  led  many  Southern  growers 
to  resort  to  fewer  and  deeper  furrows  and  to  new  devices  to  enable 
the  tree  to  get  the  benefit  of  the  water.  There  has  been  wide  use  of 
the  subsoil  plow,  with  a  wedge-shaped  foot  attached  to  a  slim  standard 
rising  to  the  ordinary  beam.  The  standard  opposes  its  thin  edge  to 
the  soil  so  as  to  cleave  it  with  the  least  difficulty,  and  the  foot,  passing 
through  or  beneath  the  hardpan,  lifts  and  breaks  it.  The  result  of 
the  subsoiling  is  to  open  a  way  for  the  water  to  sink  and  spread  below 
the  hardpan.  It  is  usual  to  run  this  plow  once  through  the  center 
of  the  interspace  between  the  rows  of  trees,  sometimes  at  right  angles 
to  the  irrigation  furrows.  When  this  is  done  the  water  is  admitted  to 
the  furrows  as  usual,  but  instead  of  flowing  along  smoothly  it  drops 
into  the  track  of  the  subsoiler  and  runs  there  a  long  time  before 
rising  again  to  continue  its  course  down  the  furrow.  It  is  the  expe- 
rience of  some  growers  that  the  water  has  taken  five  or  six  days  to 
reach  the  lower  end  of  the  furrows,  a  distance  which  would  have  been 
covered  in  twenty-four  hours  if  the  subsoiler  had  not  intervened.  This 
has  been  shown  to  result  in  much  water  for  the  subsoil  and  a  notable 
invigoration  of  trees  which  had  been  famishing,  although  shallow- 
furrow  irrigation  had  proceeded  regularly. 


52 

Recent  changes  in  the  furrow  method  at  Riverside,  Cal..  are  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  J.  H.  Reed  as  follows: 

The  handling  of  the  water  in  the  orchard  has  materially  changed  in  recent  years. 
Instead  of  flooding  up,  basining,  or  using  shallow  furrows,  deep  furrows,  from  3  to  5 
feet  apart,  are  most  generally  used.  In  heavy  adobe  soils  more  furrows  are  used 
than  in  the  more  porous  granite  soils.  The  most  usual  length  of  furrows  is  40  rods. 
Every  pecaution  is  taken  to  have  the  surface  wetted  as  little  as  possible. 

The  amount  of  water  run  at  a  time  is  materially  lessened.  Formerly  the  common 
practice  was  to  run  3  inches  per  acre  for  twenty-four  hours  each  thirty  days.  Now,  2 
inches  continuous  run  for  seventy-two  hours  is  found  to  serve  a  much  better  purpose, 
except  on  loose  soils.  The  general  practice  in  the  valley  is  to  irrigate  once  each 
thirty  days.  A  tew  of  the  most  careful  orchardists  had  found  that  by  intelligent 
and  thorough  manipulation  of  the  soil  they  obtained  as  favorable  results  from  the 
application  of  water  every  sixty  days  or  more,  using  the  same  amount  as  they 
formerly  did  at  intervals  of  half  that  time.  The  writer  has  watched  with  much 
interest  an  eight-year  old  orchard  that  during  the  three  years  preceding  the  present 
received  in  all  but  ten  irrigations,  the  usual  amount  of  water  being  used  only  at  each 
four  irrigations  the  first  year  and  three  irrigations  each  the  second  and  third  years, 
with  results  comparing  favorably  with  those  on  trees  of  the  same  age  on  the  same 
soil  in  neighboring  orchards  that  received  the  ordinary  thirty-day  irrigations.  While 
there  are  yet  few  orchardists  who  have  the  skill  and  patience  required  to  secure 
such  results,  they  show  the  possibilities  of  improved  cultivation  in  conserving  mois- 
ture. So  long  as  water  is  abundant  and  not  expensive,  more  frequent  irrigations  will 
probably  be  generally  practiced;  but  the  advantage  of  running  the  water  slowly  for 
a  longer  time,  in  furrows  as  deep  as  possible,  covering  the  saturated  bottoms  as  soon 
as  practicable  and  keeping  the  surface  perfectly  pulverized  and  in  loose  condition,  is 
being  generally  recognized. 

PI.  IX,  tig.  2,  shows  the  water  flowing  in  the  furrows  to  which 
Mr.  Reed  alludes.  A  young  orchard  is  selected  to  better  show  the 
furrows.  The  usual  practice  is  now  to  have  6  deep  furrows  in  20-foot 
spaces.  The  number  varies  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil,  but 
is  in  any  case  less  than  in  the  small,  shallow  furrow  system  which 
formerly  prevailed. 

The  recourse  to  deeper  furrows  and  to  the  subsoil  plowing  has  been 
made  in  several  citrus  fruit  districts  of  southern  California.  Its 
success  depends  upon  conditions.  There  are  cases  in  which  too  deep 
use  of  the  subsoiler  has  admitted  the  water  at  a  point  too  low  for  best 
results  to  the  tree  which  grows  on  a  leach}r  subsoil,  and  the  cutting  of 
roots  by  the  subsoiler  has  in  some  cases  brought  shallow-rooting  trees 
into  temporary  distress.  The  general  conclusion,  however,  is  that 
deeper  introduction  of  water  favors  deeper  rooting  and  is  very 
economical  of  water  by  preventing  the  loss  bjT  evaporation  from  the 
surface,  which,  theoreticalhr,  is  dry,  but  which  actually,  with  shallow 
furrows  over  an  irrigation  hardpan  becomes  too  often  saturated  over 
nearhT  the  whole  space  between  the  trees. 

CEMENT   PIPES   AND    FLUMES   FOR   THE   FURROW    SYSTEM. 

A  general  account  of  the  small-furrow  system  has  already  been 
given, a  and  a  more  specific  account  of  some  of  its  details  will  be 
added. 


U.  S.  Dept,  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  116,  pp.  38-41 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  108,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.     Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  X. 


53 

The  use  of  cement  in  the  construction  of  flumes  has  largely  increased 
because,  by  means  of  locally  devised  machinery,  continuous  cement 
flume  has  been  cheapened  so  that  its  first  cost  is  less  than  that  of  lum- 
ber flume  where  suitably  durable  lumber  is  high.  Similar  machinery 
is  used  for  the  construction  of  continuous  cement  pipe,  which  is  replac- 
ing open  laterals  in  carrying  water  from  main  ditches  to  the  land  of 
individual  irrigators.  This  pipe  is  made  by  a  machine  constructed  by 
two  Riverside  men  who  are  both  machinists  and  practical  orchardists. 
PL  X  shows  the  outfit  in  operation.  Sand  and  barrels  of  cement  are 
distributed  along  the  line  ahead  of  the  machine,  as  shown  in  the  back- 
ground of  the  picture.  The  mixing  is  done  in  the  flat  boxes,  each  being- 
carried  forward  when  emptied.  One  of  the  lines  of  large  rubber  hose 
conveys  steam  to  the  head  of  the  cylinder  of  the  machine  and  the  other 
returns  the  spent  steam.  The  mixed  cement  and  sand  is  carried  to  the 
feeding  box  (shown  in  vertical  position  in  the  trench),  from  which  it  is 
dropped  into  the  steel  pipe  form  below.  Steam  pressure  is  then 
brought  to  bear  upon  it  and  then  cut  off  by  the  lever:  loose  earth  is 
thrown  around  the  steel  forming-cylinder  as  it  moves  forward  and  is 
firmed  by  the  operator's  feet  ready  to  sustain  the  walls  of  the  new  pipe 
as  the  cylinder  is  withdrawn  from  it.  More  loose  earth  is  thrown  over 
the  new  pipe,  which  is  allowed  to  harden  before  the  trench  is  filled. 

Continuous  cement  flume  is  made  in  a  similar  manner,  the  machine 
working  on  the  surface  and  the  required  pressure  being  given  by  a 
strong  lever  instead  of  by  steam  power.  Instead  of  a  cylindrical  form, 
one  to  properly  shape  the  flume  is  used.  After  this  form  is  moved 
and  before  the  cement  hardens,  grooves  are  made  at  intervals  in  the 
side  walls  to  insert  board  dams  to  raise  the  water  so  that  it  will  flow 
out  of  the  zinc  tubes  with  gates,  which  are  also  put  in  place  while  the 
cement  is  plastic.  Not  only  is  such  flume  sometimes  cheaper  than 
board  flumes,  as  stated  above,  but  annoyance  of  leaking  and  cost  of 
extensive  repairs  are  done  away  with.     (PI.  VII,  fig.  1.) 

THE  BOARD  FLUME  AND  THE  FURROW  SYSTEM. 

Although  in  the  older  regions  the  cement  flume  is  advancing  in 
popularity,  important  service  will  always  be  rendered  by  the  home- 
made board  flume  where  suitable  lumber  is  cheap.  A  detailed  account 
of  its  construction  and  operation  will  be  widely  useful.  The  follow- 
ing is  contributed  by  Mjr.  A.  S.  Bradford,  of  Orange  County,  CaL, 
whose  arrangefhents  are  shown  in  PL  IX.  fig.  1: 

I  consider  the  board  flume  best  because  it  is  in  many  places  cheapest  and  because 
it  will  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years  in  California  if  made  of  good  soft  redwood.  The 
common  redwood  lumber  is  generally  so,  but  the  so-called  flume  lumber  is  hard, 
generally,  and  will  warp  the  flume  out  of  shape.  Even  in  the  common  redwood 
lumber  hard  pieces  will  be  found,  and  these  should  be  avoided.  My  first  flume  has 
been  in  use  nine  years  and  is  apparently  as  good  as  ever. 

The  first  thing  to  be  considered  is  getting  a  flume  put  in  properly,  as  this  alone 
will  cause  much  trouble  if  not  done  right.  A  flume  should  run  nearly  on  a  level. 
It  should  be  placed  about  two-thirds  in  the  ground  at  the  commencement,  and,  as 


Boon  as  it  comes  out  of  the  ground  to  about  two-thirds  of  its  height,  there  should  be 
a  drop  made  of  1,  2,  or  3  inches,  if  necessary,  and  then  carried  along  as  before,  so 
as  to  keep  the  entire  length  of  flume  practically  on  a  level. 

Sixteen-foot  lumber  is  better  than  longer,  as  it  is  lighter  to  handle.  I  prefer  8- 
inch  sides  with  18-inch  bottom,  or,  in  some  cases,  10-inch  sides  with  16-inch  bottom. 
The  first  section,  however,  should  be  about  2  feet  wide,  narrowed  to  the  size  of  the 
flume,  so  as  to  control  the  stream.  Collars  should  be  put  around  the  flume  every  8 
feet  of  distance;  that  is,  one  in  the  center  and  one  to  cover  the  joints  at  each  end. 
These  collars  should  be  2  by  3  inch  stuff  on  the  bottom  and  sides  and  1  by  3  inches 
on  top.  This  makes  a  strong,  durable  flume.  The  length  of  the  flume  should  be 
divided,  so  that  the  stream  will  decrease  as  it  goes  along.  The  width  should  be 
decreased  also,  say  from  16  inches  to  14,  12,  10,  and  8  inches,  the  sides  being  the 
same  throughout  or  reduced  so  as  to  have  10-inch  sides  on  the  16-inch  bottom  and 
8-inch  sides  on  the  rest,  nailed  to  the  side  of  the  bottom,  making  7  inches  depth 
inside.  Two-inch  holes  should  be  about  30  inches  apart  and  2-inch  gates  placed  on 
the  inside  instead  of  outside,  as  they  will  collect  less  trash,  the  hole  through  the 
wood,  if  uncovered,  making  a  lodgment  for  leaves,  etc.  In  the  narrow  and  flat 
flume  it  is  much  easier  to  fix  the  gates. 

From  8  to  9  furrows  for  trees  set  24  feet  apart  are  sufficient.  The  streams  should 
be  run  from  one-eighth  to  one-half  the  capacity  of  the  holes  in  the  flume,  according 
to  the  soil  and  fall  of  ground.  I  commence  the  stream  small  and  increase  it  if 
necessary  later  on.  The  streams  should  be  kept  as  near  together  as  possible,  and 
when  the  end  is  reached  the  gate  should  be  nearly  closed  down,  so  as  to  allow  the 
stream  to  just  trickle  to  the  end.  In  this  manner  the  soil  will  become  thoroughly 
wet  from  one  end  to  the  other.  The  streams  should  be  run  very  slowly  on  most  of 
our  soils.  A  great  many  failures  have  been  made  on  hard  soils  by  running 
the  stream  too  large  and  then  reducing  it.  This  seems  to  "slick"  or  cement  the 
soil  so  that  it  will  not  take  the  water,  and  the  consequence  is  a  poor  and  unsatis- 
factory irrigation.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  streams  are  started  small  and  allowed 
to  soak  the  ground  as  they  go  along,  it  is  simply  astonishing  how  much  water  can 
be  put  in  the  ground.  On  sandy  >oils  the  streams  should  be  larger.  A  little  prac- 
tice would  give  anyone  the  desired  information. 

About  three  rows  of  trees  at  the  lower  end  should  be  blocked  up,  provided  one 
has  no  place  where  the  overflow  water  could  be  used.  This  last  provision  is  the  bet- 
ter, however,  as  there  would  be  only  about  10  inches  of  water  run  over  the  last  three 
or  four  hours,  and  a  thorough  job  would  be  done  from  one  end  to  the  other. 

In  making  furrows  I  have  an  extension  made  for  my  cultivator  to  bolt  on  each 
side  and  use  four  plows.  With  this  extension  I  can  wet  the  whole  ground  thoroughly. 
The  furrows  will  extend  under  the  limbs  of  the  trees,  and  by  making  a  slight  curve 
around  each  tree  the  ground  will  become  wet  in  the  rows  as  well  as  between. 

As  compared  with  the  check  system,  the  furrow  method,  properly  handled,  makes 
the  soil  light  and  loose,  while  the  check  system  is  apt  to  pack  the  soil,  rendering  it 
lifeless  and  leaving  it  so  that  it  will  not  retain  moisture  long.  Besides,  the  cost  of 
ridging  and  extra  labor  in  handling  water  in  checks  for  one  season  will  nearly  pay 
for  the  flume  by  which  one  man  can  do  the  irrigating.  Two  horses  null  furrow  out 
10  acres  in  half  a  day,  and  a  little  hand  labor,  at  the  flume  will  connect  the  furrows. 
In  the  check  system  generally  a  disk  is  run  first  where  the  ridges  are  to  be  made, 
and  then  the  ridger  is  run  with  4  horses;  then  the  jump  scraper  *s  run  to  stop  up  one 
side  of  the  blocks;  then  ditches  must  be  made;  then  from  2  to  3  men  are  required  to 
handle  the  water  by  shutting  up  the  checks  when  filled.  Afterwards  the  ridges 
must  be  plowed  down  before  the  ground  can  be  harrowed  and  got  in  condition  to 
cultivate.  At  a  glance  one  can  see  that  it  costs  fully  three  times  as  much  to  irrigate 
by  the  check  system  as  by  the  furrow  system,  and  with  the  latter  the  soil  acts  more 
as  it  does  after  a  rain. 

n 


UNIVERSITY  OF  FLORIDA 


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